Franc Rozman

JOURNEY TO THE CENTRE OF THE ATOM

Title:

JOURNEY TO THE CENTRE OF THE ATOM

Written by: Franc Rozman

fr.rozman@gmail.com

Publisher:
Franc Rozman, Brezje pri Tržiču 59, 4290 Tržič

Illustrations and design: Maurice Zalaznik

Year of publication: 2019

1st electronic issue

Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani

COBISS.SI-ID=298717184

ISBN 978-961-290-058-8 (epub)

INTRODUCTION

ENERGY

* Energy and forces

* Binding energy

* Energy dimension of space

ENERGY FIELDS

* Magnetic field

* Electric field

* Gravity

* Mass

FLUCTUATIONS AND WAVES

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

* Neutrino

* Electron and positron

* Nucleon

* Strong nuclear forces

ATOM

* Atomic nucleus

* Electron shell

MYTH ABOUT THE SPEED OF LIGHT

* Maxwell’s equations

* Measurement of the speed of light

* Failed attempts to measure the speed of light

* Methods for measuring the speed of light

* Importance of understanding the speed of light

TRANSIENT PHENOMENA OF EM WAVES

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

INTRODUCTION

The booklet leads the reader into the depths of the atom through the discovering of the electromagnetic field. It gives a hypothetical model of decomposition of the atom into axions, i.e., the smallest particles of matter. It describes the combining of axions into electrons, quarks and atomic nuclei. It explains the forces that create and combine these particles. The model is based on current knowledge of physics and measurement; however, it combines this knowledge in a new and original way. Descriptions are given in a generalized form.

Described are phenomena the answers to which physics is still looking for. It includes a description of the structure of the neutrino and the electron, explains how electron and positron generate electric charges, gives the mechanisms of matter formation, reveals the source of the gravitational field, etc. Lessons are the result of known physical measurement. However, this model will achieve its maturity when targeted measurement is made, aimed at validating the model.

Quantum physics gives one of the possible mathematical models of the description of the atom, but it does not answer many other questions, e.g., why atomic orbits are just as big as they are, and not bigger or smaller, why an electron can circulate around the atomic nucleus without radiating energy, why it circulates along an ellipse rather than a circle, why all the electrons have the same mass and why exactly that mass. The booklet tries to answer these questions as comprehensively as possible. Certain additional terms need to be introduced in order to provide successful answers.

Throughout history discoveries were usually the result of attempts by individuals who chose to take the paths less treaded. This text also describes the natural features from a completely new and original point of view which is not common in current physics. It will be difficult for the reader to fully understand the contents of the booklet if he or she is not ready to follow the author to the very outskirts of physics.

The booklet in electronic form combines the contents of the Essay on Light and Travel to the Centre of the Atom which were published in printed form.

ENERGY

Wikipedia states that energy is a scalar quantity and is associated with the ability to perform work. This definition is not comprehensive because it does not include binding energy. An object can emit energy into the surrounding area and thus create dynamics. Wind power, for example, drives boats, water energy drives water wheels, solar energy heats up water.

The role of binding energy is connectivity. Binding energy is a bond that connects objects to each other. An example of binding energy is the binding of an electron and a proton into a hydrogen atom.

The difference between energy and binding energy is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Energy separates two particles by force, while performing work, until they emerge from each other’s energy fields. The binding energy attracts two particles by force, while performing work, until they are glued together.

As a rule, particles are surrounded by energy fields. When the energy fields of the particles overlap, they create a force between the particles. The force either draws the particles apart or together, thus clamping them together.

Energy uses force to draw particles apart. The pushing apart is shown in the above diagram in Figure 1. Energy creates a repulsive force when, for example, two identical electric charges encounter each other.

The binding energy draws objects together by force. The connection of objects is shown in the middle diagram in Figure 1. The binding energy is generated, for example, by two opposite electric charges, two mutually attracted magnets, or a black hole sucking in its adjacent star.

For example, forces exerted upon objects can also be equal, as shown in the lower diagram in Figure 1. For example, during the Moon’s rotation the centrifugal force and the force of gravity are balanced. Gravity pulls the Moon towards the Earth, while the kinetic energy of the Moon tries to distance it from the Earth on the basis of the centrifugal force.

However, the question arises as to why the potential energy, where the force acts in the direction of drawing the particles together, should be separated from the energy where the force acts in the direction of separation. In both cases, the force on its path has the ability to perform work.

The results of the action of energy differ from the results for binding energy. When the forces act outwardly, the particles remain unbound and free after moving away. When the forces act in the direction of their approaching, however, the particles are interconnected. Particle integration is the basic mechanism for the creation of matter.

Energy in the middle diagram in Figure 1 can be understood in two ways: as a binding or as a potential energy.

Potential energy is capable of performing work until the object falls down and until it reaches the bottom of the energy sinkhole.

Binding energy is an energy debt that binds two particles together. Without the acquisition of energy from elsewhere, the particles can not be separated from one another. Binding energy means energy indebtedness. It means a negative form of energy.

Energy and forces

Let us conduct a mental experiment in a space station revolving around the Earth. Let us imagine two floating spheres. When the spheres are electrically charged with equal electric charge, the force of the electric field repels them. If one is charged with a positive and the other with a negative electric charge, the force attracts them.

The spheres of opposite charge are accelerated by revolving one around the other, just as double stars revolve. Attractive force between the charges attracts them, while the centrifugal force of rotation repels them. The forces operate in different directions. When the forces are balanced, the spheres revolve one around the other.

The force between the spheres is the result of their energies. Instead of the direction of the action of the forces, we can talk about the direction of energy. The binding energy acts towards the centre of the revolution of the spheres, and the kinetic energy acts from the centre of the revolution. Consequently, it is sensible to mark both forms of energy with operators, one with a plus, the other with a minus.

The kinetic energy of the spheres generates a centrifugal force. According to Figure 1, we refer to kinetic energy as a positive form of energy. The attractive force of binding energy attracts the spheres and binds them together. Then, we determine the opposite direction of action, i.e., the negative form of energy.

Negative binding energy determines the degree of mutual entrapment of the spheres. The spheres bound by binding energy can not be separated if they do not obtain the necessary energy for their liberation. The spheres bound by binding energy are energetically indebted, they have an energy debt.

The spheres should revolve around each other in such a way that the curves of their revolutions draw an ellipse. Similarly, a comet revolves around the Sun. Both kinetic and binding energies of the spheres change cyclically. When spheres find themselves on the shorter axes of the ellipse and thus close together, they have greater kinetic energy and at the same time also their negative binding energy is greater. When the spheres are on the longer axes of the ellipse, they have less kinetic energy and are thus bound together with binding energy to a lesser degree.

Figure 2 - During the circulation of a comet around the Sun, the binding and kinetic energy appear and disappear simultaneously in the pair.

When the kinetic energy of the spheres increases, the binding energy increases in the direction of the negative energy value as shown in Figure 2.

Their relationship is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. Kinetic energy of the spheres has positive energy values. In Figure 2 they are shown above the zero-point energy value. The binding energy of the spheres has negative energy values therefore it is shown below the axis in the diagram showing the zero-point energy value.

Symmetry model

The described positive and negative energy model is inconsistent with the Standard Model of the structure of matter. Therefore, in this text an alternative model of the structure of matter is presented instead of the Standard Model, which I named the symmetry model. The name derives from symmetries that are brought into the structure of matter by the symmetrical appearance of energies in the form of positive and negative forms of energies. The reader will be able to follow the text only if he/she mentally deviates from the Standard Model and, while reading, tries to follow the presented symmetry model.

Binding energy

An electron which freely roves around the room is not burdened with binding energy. But when it falls into the orbit around an atomic nucleus it becomes bound to an atom by negative binding energy.

When the electron enters the electron shell, a photon and binding energy are created simultaneously in a pair, the previous with a positive and the latter with a negative energy.

The electron and the proton, in the presence of an electron in the electron shell, retain both their structure and their mass. In addition, an energy field in the form of binding energy is created which is equal in energy to the energy of the emitted photon but has a negative energy value. From the point of view of location, the binding energy does not appear within the electron or the proton, but around them.

Figure 3 - Two new realities are generated when an electron hits the rotation around the proton: the photon emitted and the electron-proton connection.

In the event of an electron colliding with an electron shell, two new realities are created: the photon and the binding of the electron to the proton. All four realities are schematically shown in Figure 3. The photon flies away and the binding energy is arranged in the form of a field between the electron and the proton.

With the emergence of two new autonomous features, the photon and the binding energy, nature maintains stable masses of the proton and the electron, while maintaining the total amount of energy throughout the system.

Each energy field, including the field of binding energy, has its own mass, as explained in more detail in the chapter entitled Mass. Therefore, in the link between the electron and the proton, we find their respective masses and, in addition, the mass of the binding energy. A hydrogen atom is expected to have a larger mass than the sum of masses of unbound electrons and protons. Its mass increases by the added mass of binding energy which binds the electron and the proton together in the hydrogen atom.

The dilemma on the mass of the binding energy will be explained by the measurement of the mass of the hydrogen atom. The measurement of the mass of the hydrogen atom is described in the article Atomic Weights of the Elements 2013 IUPAC Technical Report. Experimental physics measures the masses of the electron and the proton with sufficient precision. However, methods of measuring the mass of the hydrogen atom do not allow measurement that would be accurate enough to allow experimental confirmation of the newly formed mass of the binding energy.

Energy dimension of space

Energy fields - electric, magnetic or gravitational - flow through space. The distribution of energy fields in space is described by the laws of energy.

Geometric objects are placed in a three-dimensional space. To describe the laws of energy, we add another dimension, i.e., the energy dimension. It describes the distribution of energy fields in space. The energy dimension in the coordinate system is illustrated by the ‘E’ coordinate in Figure 4.

Figure 4 - The properties of space are described by the energy dimension describing the density of energy fields in space.

The three spatial dimensions (X, Y and Z) in Figure 4 are represented by the R-axis. Time is represented by the T-axis, while the energy dimension of space is represented by the E-axis. Geometric laws describe space, and energy laws describe the distribution of energy in space.

Energy point (singularity)

Each charge or other form of an energy point (singularity) creates an energy field in its surroundings. Electrostatic charge is electrostatic energy concentrated in a point which creates an electric field around itself. Similarly, the mass in a mass fragment is concentrated energy that creates a gravitational field around itself.

Figure 5 - Energy singularity creates an energy field in its surroundings.

The energy field around an energy point is shown in Figure 5. The density of the energy field around the energy point falls with the square of its distance. The energy points and energy fields corresponding to energy points are arranged in space in such a way that their total energy is as small as possible.

Energy reduction is realized by the force between the energy fields. Forces move energy fields in space and direct them to a minimum energy state.

Energy inclination of space

The energy field of an isolated particle is not noticeable. Energy is observed when two particles meet in such a way that their energy fields enter each other. The energy fields force each other in such a way that the particles are either mutually repelled or attracted.

Energy fields and the tendency to decrease energy are represented by the energy inclination of space in Figure 6. When one energy singularity finds itself in the energy inclination of another energy singularity, the force pushes it along the energy inclination in the direction of decreasing energy.

Figure 6 - The change in energy density can be understood as an energy curved space.

The electric charge Q in Figure 6 is surrounded by an electrostatic field. The density of the energy field decreases with the distance from the Q charge. Different energy densities of an electrostatic field can be understood as an energy curved space. When another energy node (Q charge) is found on the energy inclination (Q charge), it is pushed by force in the direction of lower energy along the energy inclination.

Figure 7 - The energy-diverse space is shown by a curved surface with such a deviation from the zero value on the ‘e’ coordinate as there is energy located in the observed particle of space.

In general, a space containing various forms of energy (also in the form of matter) can be described by a curved surface which has, at the (e) energy coordinate such a distance from the zero value in the positive or negative direction in each point of the space, as there is energy located in the observed fraction of space. For the sake of a better visualization, Figure 7 shows a two-dimensional space instead of a three-dimensional one.

The dynamics of energy in space can be illustrated with a trampoline. If more children are jumping on the trampoline, the trampoline tarp may bend in different ways. Every child curves the tarp with his/her own weight, and at the same time each child feels the jumps of other children in the form of force. Likewise, every energy singularity curves the space from the energy point of view. At the same time, every energy singularity feels the action of other energy singularities with force.

ENERGY FIELDS

The material world is designed and created by energy fields, among which the electric and magnetic fields predominate. In the chapter Matter, also the smallest material particles are presented as an intertwinement of electric and magnetic fields.

Magnetic field

Action Of magnetic field is illustrated by the magnetic cores shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8- The left magnetic core is fixed and the right one rotates on the bearing axis.

The left magnetic core is fixed, while the right one is rotating. On the one side the north (N) and on the other side the southern magnetic poles (S) are aligned. The magnetic force repels them and thus turns the right magnetic core. By rotating the magnetic core, the magnetic force is performing work. When the north pole of one magnetic core approaches the southern pole of the other core, the density and energy of the magnetic field increase in the cores. The cores perform work on the basis of the magnetic force, and at the same time the magnetic field energy increases within them.

Increasing energy when performing work can be in accordance with the law of conservation of energy if the energy of the magnetic field is understood as a negative form of energy, i.e. as binding energy. The negative binding energy of the magnetic field performs work as shown in the middle diagram in Figure 1. As the north and south magnetic poles of magnetic cores approach the negative binding energy of the magnetic field increases. Magnetic poles slip into energy interconnection.

The occurrence of negative binding energy can be described by the next mathematical equation for energy.

– W = – W0 – A

The initial magnetic field energy - W0 represents the energy of the magnetic fields of magnetic cores before rotating the right-hand core, and – W is the energy of their fields after the rotation of the magnetic core and the completed work. When the work done is subtracted from the initial negative energy of the magnetic field, the negative energy of the magnetic field increases in the direction of increasing the negative energy values. Therefore, the binding energy of the magnetic field is drawn below the plane in Fig. 7, in the field of negative energy values.

Cyclic rotation of magnetic cores

The flywheel and the inertia of the right-hand magnetic core allow cyclic rotation of the latter. At rotation, the magnetic force is used for acceleration or braking. In the phase of the maximum angular velocity and thus maximum kinetic energy of the magnetic core, the magnetic density in the cores is the greatest. At that point, the magnetic densities of both cores are added up.

Figure 2 can be understood as a diagram of the magnetic and kinetic energy of a magnetic core. When the kinetic energy of the core is the smallest, the magnetic field energy is close to zero. As the attractive force increases the kinetic energy of the core, the energy of the magnetic field increases in the direction of the negative values. We note the simultaneous occurrence and disappearance of the kinetic energy and the binding energy of the magnetic field.

Fluctuation of the LC cell

The negative energy of the magnetic field also exists in LC circuits. In the LC circuit shown in the upper part of Figure 9, the voltage at the Uc capacitor and the magnetic flux ψ are exchanged as shown in the diagram in Figure 9. From the capacitor (C), the electric field energy (Wuc) circulates into the energy of the magnetic field of the coil (Wψ) and back via the electric current (I). A similar phenomenon is observed in the energy sector when the so-called reactive energy circulates from the power plant to the inductive consumer and back.

Figure 9 - Fluctuations of the electric and magnetic fields in the LC circuit.

The energy at the WUC capacitor is determined by the capacitance of the capacitor and the voltage at the condenser. The WUC energy varies between zero value when the capacitor voltage is zero, and the value of C · U2 /2. The voltage at the Uc capacitor fluctuates around the zero value between the positive and the negative voltage. The energy in the WUC capacitor is positive for the positive and negative voltage on the capacitor.

The magnetic flux Ψ is the carrier of negative binding energy. The magnetic flux energy Wψ is zero when there are no magnetic fields. Otherwise, the magnetic field energy is the same – Ψ2 / 2L. The equation with the minus sign denotes the negative energy values of the magnetic field. The magnetic field Ψ is transmitted in both directions, back and forth. However, the magnetic field energy only has negative values, independent of the direction of the magnetic field flux.

The diagram in Fig. 9 shows the propulsion energy (Wp), besides the energy of the electric and magnetic fields.

When a mass particle moves, we observe its kinetic energy. The magnetic field flux also has its inertia. The magnetic field can not change the value or direction of flux in an instant. Consequently, the moving magnetic field also has a propulsive energy in addition to its magnetic energy.

We need to deliberately separate the concepts at this point. With the term propulsion energy, we shall denote the inertial energy of the energy fields, while the kinetic energy concept is the inertial energy of the material particle. Propulsive energy thus co-creates the dynamics of the energy flux of the electric and magnetic fields in the LC cell.

The diagram in Figure 9 shows the propulsion energy which can take both positive and negative energy values. The positive values of the propulsion energy increase the dynamics of the magnetic field of the LC circuit, while the negative values attenuate the dynamics of the magnetic field.

In the case of a clock pendulum, two forms of energy are mutually circulating, the potential and the kinetic. In the LC circuit, three forms of energy are circulating: the electrical, the magnetic and the propulsion energy. The sum of the Wψ, Wuc and Wp energies in the LC circuit is constant at all times.

Transformer

LC circuit is an energy-autonomous system where energy circulates within the system. Transformer is also a closed system when it is not loaded on the secondary side. An external electrical source connected to the primary winding of the transformer generates an electric current that creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field returns voltage in the opposite direction to a suitable winding which prevents the supply of new energy from the terminals of the transformer. The positive energy of the source and the negative energy of the magnetic field are mutually subtracted, equalized and balanced.

If the magnetic field of the transformer would not react with energy in the opposite direction, the unloaded transformer would also be a continuous energy recipient that would accumulate in the transformer until the latter was destroyed due to overheating.

When a load is connected to the secondary winding of the transformer, the magnetic field does not return the primary winding the part of the energy assumed by the secondary winding. The energy of the magnetic field, regardless of the fact that it represents negative forms of energy, allows for the energy flux through the transformer.

Electric motor

An electric motor operates as shown in the middle diagram in Figure 1. A negative binding energy is generated by the electromagnet which attracts the magnetic core of the rotor and rotates the electric motor’s rotor. When the magnetic core approaches the magnet, the latter is switched off and another magnet is switched on in the neighbourhood which pulls the magnetic core forward to the next magnet. The procedure is repeated, and the rotor of the electric motor is rotating. Rotation is created by the force of attraction of the magnetic field binding energy, which moves in a circle and pulls the rotor of the electric motor behind. Electricity indirectly converts to mechanical work through the binding energy of a magnetic field.

Electric field

When a comb is rubbed against a cloth, it attracts particles. The force acting on the particles is created by the electric field of the charged comb.

Two equal charges are mutually repulsive, while two opposite charges attract each other. Both repulsion and attraction of charges occur on the basis of nature’s tendency to reduce the density of an electric field, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 - The forces try to reduce the resultant of the electric field of two electric charges, both in the case of the same and the opposite charges.

Left side in Figure 10 shows two identical charges. The charges are created by electric fields which are vectorially added at the observed point. The force acts on the charges in the direction of reducing the resultant of the E1 and E2 electric fields in such a way as to increase the angle between the E1 and E2 electric field vectors. The E1 and E2 electric fields in return exert force on the electrical charges by trying to distance them.

In case of different charges on the right side of Figure 10, the force also operates in the direction of reducing the density of the electric field. At the point of encounter of the E3 and E4 electric fields the force seeks to increase the angle between the E3 and E4 electric field vectors. The E2 and E4 electric fields reversely act on the charges by creating an attractive force between the charges.

Energy between two identical charges

The repulsive force performs work when distancing equal charges. With this, the charges’ common electric field and the energy of their common electric field are reduced. Their mathematical written form is as follows:

W = W0 – A

At the starting point, the charges have the energy of W0. As they move away, the energy of the charges decreases to the value of W. It decreases by the work done. Two identical electrical charges are carriers of the positive energy form.

Negative charge is not the same as negative energy

In an electric field, we must distinguish between positive and negative charge and positive and negative energy. These are two unrelated concepts.

When an electric field appears in a certain direction, this field is marked with the + E vector. However, when an electric field appears in the opposite direction, this field is marked with the - E vector. The + E or - E signs determine the directions of action of the electric field. In the case of an + Q electric charge, the electric field vector points out of the charge, and at - Q charge it points toward the charge.

The direction of an electric field does not represent a positive or a negative form of energy. The notion of a negative electrical charge is a mental trap, since it can be misunderstood as a negative binding energy. Positive and negative electric charges have nothing to do with the positive and negative forms of energy and should not be equated with the latter.

Positive energy creates the dynamics of the system, while negative energy calms and connects the system with the binding energy. Positive or negative electric charges show only the direction of action of an electric field.

Energy of opposite charges

Force repulses the same and attracts the opposite charges, as shown in Figure 10. The forces of electric fields can be illustrated with two charged magnetic cores, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 - The figure shows two electrically charged magnetic cores. The left one is attached and the right one is rotating on the bearing axis. The magnetic cores are mutually attracted or repulsed, depending on the position of their charges.

The left magnetic core is firmly clamped in, while the right one is rotating. On the magnetic core axis there is a flywheel. Figure 12 shows the energy exchange between the electrostatic energy (WE ) and the kinetic energy of the rotating right-hand magnetic core (WK ).

Figure 12 - Mutual flux of the kinetic energy (WK ) and the energy of the electric field (WE ) during rotation of the magnetic core in Fig. 11.

Kinetic energy occupies only positive energy values, as indicated by the WK curve. The energy of the electric field varies between positive and negative energy values, as shown in the WE curve in Figure 12. The sum of energies is always the same.

When two equal charges are approaching, they are mutually repulsed. However, when positive and negative electric charges approach each other, they attract each other with an attractive force, similarly as the electron is caught into the circumference of the atom. This creates binding energy. Excessive energy is passed on to the WK kinetic energy.

Magnetic field only creates binding energy, while electric field can produce both positive energy forms and negative binding energy.

Gravity

The positive form of energy and the binding energy of an elementary particle create their own energy fields in the vicinity of the particle. Consequently, the attractive and the repulsive forces act between the particles:

Repulsive force between fields of the positive energy of the elementary particle; and

Attractive force between fields of the binding energy in the elementary particle.

The particles attract each other because in matter binding energy prevails over the positive energy form. The attractive forces of the energy fields and the repulsive forces of the binding energy fields are not detected separately. Only the gravitational force can be measured, i.e., the difference between them.

To clarify the gravitational field, we do not need a special particle, for example the graviton used by physics. Positive and negative binding energy fields that originate from the structure of the elementary particles are sufficient.

Actual physics also questionably regards gravity as a curved four-dimensional space (x, y, z, t). A gravitational field is an energy field and can not be a curved space, because a curved space only has geometric and not energy properties.

The gravitational field can be described in a five-dimensional space (x, y, z, t, e), where the fifth, energy dimension is added to the spatial dimensions and time, as shown in Figure 7.

Amount of energy in the universe

We can perceive a zero-energy state of space where there is no matter or energy fields. The plane shown on the left-hand side of Figure 7 represents a two-dimensional space with zero energy. Locally, as a zero-energy state, we can detect the saddles of curves on the right-hand side of Figure 7.

When an electron drops into the electron shell, there is as much energy in the form of a photon as there is negative binding energy, as illustrated in Figure 3. The photon and the binding energy are generated from zero. Space creates a new recognizable endowment with the drop of the electron in the electron shell. Since the creation of the universe, energy and binding energy were generated similarly in processes that we do not fully understand. Throughout the existence of the universe exactly as many positive forms of energy as there are of binding energy are created in symmetrical processes.

The force of attraction predominates between material bodies, which shows that a material body contains more negative binding energy than positive forms of energy. The gravitational force is weak, which means that the amount of positive forms of energy in matter is fairly equal to the amount of negative binding energy, but they are not exactly the same.

We can also observe radiation in the universe. Free energy in the form of radiation (light) could represent the missing part of energy which causes the dominance of the binding energy in matter as well as the attractive gravitational force resulting from the dominance of the binding energy.

The matter in the universe could originate from an empty space, according to plans observed in natural laws. Empty space was split into energy and binding energy. The total amount of energy in the universe, i.e., the sum of positive forms of energy and of binding energy, could have equalled zero in the universe before the creation of the latter as well as throughout the development of the universe, and could still be zero today. The universe is based on the quantity of positive energy balanced with the quantity of negative binding energy.

Mass

A mass particle resists acceleration with its mass. Newton found that a mass particle resists acceleration with a force equal to F = m · a (the force is mass times the acceleration). In the mid-1960s, the English physicist Peter Higgs researched the source of mass. He believed that the mass particle is located in the energy field and creates its mass as shown in Figure 13. The energy field follows the mass particle with delay, thus hindering its acceleration.

The English physicist David Miller developed Higgs’ findings into the following statement: “If the mass of bodies originates from Higgs field around mass bodies, then a mass body must contain Higgs particles.” Both Higgs and Miller searched for an energy field that was supposed to be the origin of mass.

In order to explain mass, we do not need a Higgs particle. The energy field around a particle, the same as that searched for by Higgs and Miller, is produced by energy and binding energy contained in the matter.

A stationary mass particle is surrounded by an energy field in the form of a sphere, as shown in Figure 5. When the mass particle is accelerated, the energy field follows the particle with a delay, therefore the field is expanded or elongated as shown on the left-hand side of Figure 13.

Figure 13 - The acceleration of energy singularity causes its evasion from its own energy field.

With acceleration, the particle escapes from the middle of its energy field which it creates in its surroundings with its energy and binding energy. The energy field responds to the thrust of force and the shift of the mass particle from the centre of the energy field in two ways:

The energy field acts on the particle with the opposite force which tries to keep the particle in the centre of the energy field;

At the same time, the energy field starts to gradually follow the new location of the particle.

The right-hand side of Figure 13 shows a schematic representation of the shift of the particle from the energy field. The particle evades from the centre of the energy field, and at the same time a force appears that attempts to keep the particle in the middle of the energy field. The force works both on the particle and on its energy field.

Both the mass particle and its energy field can resist acceleration because they each have their own mass. If the energy field of the particle had no mass, it could not resist the force. The field would be distributed in a spherical shape around the mass particle in a moment and without resistance. Each energy field resists acceleration because it has its own mass.

The positive energy of the elementary particle and its binding energy around the elementary particle each create their own energy fields. The fields are autonomous, and each contributes its part to the creation of the mass of the elementary particle. Both fields, each one for itself, hinder the acceleration of the particle.

With mass, the force effects of both fields are added together. With gravity, things are different: the energy field creates a reflective force, and the field of negative binding energy creates a force of attraction.

The energy fields of the positive energy contained in the elementary particle and of the binding energy are therefore the very fields which the physicists Higgs and Miller have anticipated as the basis of the mass particle.

FLUCTUATIONS AND WAVES

We need to differentiate the concepts of oscillation and wave, although they are sometimes regarded as synonyms for the same phenomenon. Waves mean that a new wave is created after the previous wave, and therefore the wave travels. The oscillation means that a wave fluctuates around the same point by returning to the starting point. A pendulum moves back and forth around the same point, while a sea wave waves and travels.

As a rule, those systems in which negative binding energy prevails oscillate back and forth around the same point. On the other hand, systems where the positive form of energy predominates generate traveling waves.

Electromagnetic oscillations and waves

The electromagnetic (EM) field is a physical field consisting of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field arises in the vicinity of electric charges and magnetic fields generated due to the movement of electric charges. In EM fields, both fields intertwine and cause each other.

For the introduction, let me point out some of the already mentioned properties of energy fields which are crucial for the formation of EM oscillations or waves. Space is described by the x, y, z coordinates. Mathematicians perceive space as a fundamental condition determined by mathematical axioms. We can not further deconstruct these basic conditions of space. Two more dimensions of e and t can be added to the three dimensions of space by describing the space with x, y, z, e, t coordinates, where t represents time and e is the energy field of an individual point of space. The e and t dimensions must also be assumed as a physical axiom, as the endowment of the universe.

The values of the e energy fields in the spatial coordinates of x, y, z are coordinated by force. Force redistributes energy throughout space, thereby changing the energy density in the space.

The e energy field can have positive or negative energy values. The energy fields of positive energies are mutually reflected, while the energy fields of negative energies attract each other. If we imagine a few points of space in which the energy field of positive energies prevails, these fields will reflect each other. However, when we think of some points of space where negative or binding energy prevails, these points will attract each other. The forces between the points of the binding energy fields shrink these fields into singularity. Neither the fields of positive energies nor the fields of negative energies are durable. Entropy nullifies them.

But what happens if a positive energy field and a negative energy field appear on the same location and on the same circle as in Figure 28. Fields should be interconnected in a common energy circle at the top of the image. The field of positive energies tries to increase the circumference of the circle, while the field of binding energy acts to decrease its size. The equilibrium of both forces creates a persistent energy formation with a certain diameter. Such a persistent energy formation which, of course, fluctuates represents the basic model of EM oscillations and waves.

The electric field, as a rule, creates positive forms of EM energy of oscillations or waves, and the magnetic field generates negative binding energy. An EM field can therefore not be created without the fields of positive energy or without the fields of negative binding energy.

Independent degrees of oscillations and waves

A pendulum clock exchanges the kinetic energy that arises from the pendulum velocity, and the potential or binding energy arising from the deviation of the pendulum from the equilibrium position. In the EM wave, three types of energies are intertwined: the electric field energy, the magnetic field energy and the propulsion energy.

The propulsion energy is also referred to in literature as energy flux and as Poynting vector.

The energy flux was introduced by Maxwell in 1860. It is a flux that is not the result of an electric charge, but a result of dynamic changes in the electric and magnetic fields.

The Poynting vector in the EM wave determines the direction and density of the energy flux (E x B) in W/m2. It was introduced in 1884 by John Henry Poynting.

The above concepts for the description of the EM oscillations and waves can be expanded into the concept of Wp propulsion energy. In the description, I focus on energy events so the concept of an energy flux is not sufficient because it defines electric current that is otherwise a carrier of energy, but it does not represent energy by itself. The notion of the Poynting vector also defines propulsion energy too narrowly as it speaks of the propulsion energy of the EM wave but not of the propulsion energy of the EM node. The EM nodes are described below.

Irrespective of the differences, all three terms similarly describe the same endowment. What all three quantities have in common is that they are vector quantities, and that the vectors of the energy flux, the Poynting vector, and the propulsion energy point in the same direction. With different, but similar concepts, they describe the third component of EM waves or EM oscillations.

EM fields undulate or oscillate, whereby exchanging energy of electric and magnetic fields and propulsion energy. These three energies compose the total energy of the EM wave.

The electric and magnetic fields and the propulsion energy are mutually rectangular vectors. They are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14 - In EM-oscillations and waves, the vectors of electric and magnetic fields and of the propulsion energy are mutually perpendicular.

When energy is exchanged between three energy components instead of two, such a wave or oscillation has a larger set of possible forms of oscillations. In case of a pendulum on a string, for example, the weight can swing back and forth or circle along the ellipse or circumference. If we replace the string with a spring, the energy is exchanged by the kinetic energy of the weights, the potential energy of the weights, and the flexion energy of the springs. Thereby, the pendulum gains the possibility of new spatial shapes of oscillations. Similarly, the EM field creates a variety of waves and oscillations by means of exchange of three forms of energies.

EM waves

The diagram in Figure 15 shows the simultaneous oscillations in the electric and magnetic fields of the EM wave as described by Maxwell’s equations. In the last chapter, Maxwell’s equations are described in detail.

Figure 15 - EM waveform diagram. Above are the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields, and below the energy of these fields.

The upper diagram in Figure 15 gives a modest spatial representation of EM wave, so I shall try to complement it. In all circumstances, the magnetic field appears in the form of a ring or a torus. It rounds up into itself. The magnetic field also transfers this form into the shape of the EM wave. The EM wave travels in the shape of a ring (torus, tube) as shown in Figure 16.

The electric field, as the next component of the EM wave, is perpendicular to the magnetic field as shown in the diagram in Figure 14. Both fields are perpendicular to the propulsion energy as shown in Figure 16. The propulsion energy (propulsion flux) runs in the direction of the EM wave.

Figure 16 - The structure and shape of the magnetic and electric field and the propulsion energy in the EM wave.

EM wave is formed by forces acting between the energy fields of the electric and magnetic fields and the propulsion energy. The attractive force of the magnetic field binding energy shortens the diameter of the magnetic ring.

The electric field in the magnetic ring oscillates between positive and negative values so that at the observed moment all points on the ring have equal values of the electric field.

The electric field therefore mutually reflects the points of the magnetic ring. With a reflective force, the electric field does not permit the magnitude of the magnetic field to be reduced indefinitely. At a certain circumference of the magnetic field ring, a balance is created between the attractive force of the magnetic field and the reflective force of the electric field, thereby forming a stable form of the EM wave.

In an EM wave, each of the three energy components has its own purpose. A magnetic field creates an attractive force with binding energy that ensures the capture of the EM wave in the shape of a tube of a certain diameter and prevents the EM wave from spreading to the left and to the right in space. The electric field is a positive energy carrier and acts on the field with a reflective force. Propulsion energy determines the direction and velocity of movement of the EM wave.

EM wave is an energy-stable, compact and volume-rounded formation of energy fields which does not emit energy along the way from the direction of its path. The structure of the EM wave can be presented as a tube of a certain diameter which is constant throughout the path and protects and localizes the interconnected fields in it. The mathematical description of the shape of the EM torus is still an open task of physics.

Oscillation of EM wave

Let us observe litter that rocks on the water wave. It does not travel with the wave. The water wave rises and descends the litter vertically up and down. The electric and magnetic fields in the EM wave increase and decrease similarly to the litter changing its position. How quickly the electric field changes at a certain point is denoted by dE/dt. With dB/dt, we indicate how quickly a magnetic field changes at a certain point.

During the raising and lowering, litter is located on various inclines (gradients) of the water wave. The electric field in the EM wave also creates inclines of the electric field so that from one point to the next we find different intensities of the electric field, which is marked with Rot E.

The dE/dt indication chronologically defines how quickly the electric field changes at the observed point, while Rot E determines the electrical field intensity around the observed point. Maxwell described the EM wave propagation in mathematical form.

The interaction of the energies of the electric and magnetic fields and of the propulsion energy is shown in the lower diagram in Figure 15. The energy of the electric field (WE) represents the positive energy values and oscillates above the horizontal, in accordance with the properties of the electric fields. The magnetic field appears in the negative energy form (WB) in the EM wave. The curve is therefore drawn under zero energy value. The diagram also shows the propulsion energy (WP), which in this case oscillates above the zero-energy value.

The diameter of the EM wave tube may be larger or smaller, depending on the energy content of the EM wave, as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17 - EM waves (magnetic tori) can be combined into higher-energy tori and thus into larger-diameter tori.

When two EM waves of equal frequencies, equal phases and similar directions converge and touch, they merge into a larger and energy-richer EM wave. Two EM waves on the left-hand side of Figure 17 are joined into a common wave shown on the right-hand side of the same image.

EM wave, depending on the energy content, changes its diameter and energy content continuously without energy leaps (photons). The forces operating within the EM wave maintain a constant amplitude of the electric and magnetic fields, as explained below.

Planck measured the energy of the EM wave by knocking out electrons from the electron shell by means of light. He flashed the atom with such a frequency of light that did not knock out the electrons from the electron shell. Then he increased the brightness of the beam but did not change the frequency of light. The light of the electron, despite its greater brightness, did not knock out the electrons from the electron shell. He managed to knock out the electron from the electron shell only by increasing the frequency of light. He measured that only the frequency of the light and not the brightness of the beam has an impact in the knocking of the electron out from the electron shell.

Light is equally successful in knocking out electrons from the electron shell, if its origin is on Earth or far away in the universe. Even more, if one chain of EM waves on a semitranslucent mirror is split into two, we notice that EM wave preserves the ability to knock electrons out in either direction.

Einstein got the idea that an EM wave could contain the quanta of light physics called photons. He believed that the energy of light quanta was proportional to their frequency. Let us therefore investigate the connection of EM wave energy with photon energy. The photon energy is determined by the equation W = h · f, where h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of EM wave.

Radio EM wave energy

Let us compare the energy of a photon with the energy of an EM wave. A mid-range transmitter emits power in the class of 100 kW at a frequency of approximately 1 MHz. The transmitter sends a million EM waves per second which means that the energy of one EM wave is in the class of 0.1 joules. The photon energy according to Planck’s law W = h · f, at a frequency of 1 Mhz, equals 6.6 · 10-34 · 106 = 6.6 · 10-28 joules. Thus, one EM wave of the transmitter contains 1027 photons.

Photons in the EM wave do not cooperate with each other in knocking out electrons. If I throw a stone in a glass, all the stone molecules are involved in breaking it up with its mass. However, if the light hits an electron, the photons act in an unconnected manner. If one photon can not knock an electron from the electron shell, the nearby photons do not help it.

High frequency photons

A photon of visible light is capable of knocking an electron out from the outer electron shell of certain elements. Visible light has a frequency in the class of 1015 Hz. We also notice higher frequencies of EM waves that reach over 1020 Hz. High-frequency photons should, according to Planck’s law, exert energy that is millions of times greater than that of the photons of visible light. These are such great energies that could knock out electrons also from lower electron shells. Once knocked out, electrons would return to emptied electron shells in cascade, thereby emitting photons of visible light. If the EM waves of high frequencies, and according to Planck also of high energy, would irradiate matter, the latter would glow. For example, when a person is irradiated with X-rays, that part of his/her body is supposed to shine, however, that does not happen.

Why does matter irradiated with EM rays of high frequencies not shine could be observed on the basis of measurement described, for example, in the Wikipedia article “Mass attenuation coefficient”. The article describes that photoelectric absorption in the field of x-rays falls with an increase in frequency, which means that higher light frequencies have a lower capability of knocking out electrons than lower frequencies.

The Planck’s law therefore does not determine photon energy in the whole frequency domain. In the field of high frequencies, measurement do not confirm Planck’s law. This requires us to go deeper into the exploration of the photon properties.

Electron in the vastness of EM wave

Let us compare the size of an electron with the size of an EM wave. The wavelength of the EM wave of visible light is in the size class of 10-6 m. The size of the electron is less than 10-12 m. The EM wave of visible light is therefore very large in comparison with the electron.

EM wave and electron create their own electric and magnetic fields. When the electron passes through the EM wave, their fields impact each other. The electron is small; therefore, its field disturbs the EM wave electric and magnetic field only very locally and in a negligible area. The radio wave of the transmitter is energy intensive, but it only weakly acts on the electron with the thrust of force, because only an insignificant part of the EM wave comes into contact with the electron.

When an atom flies over a static electric or magnetic field, we do not notice the knocking out of electrons from the atom. The electrons receive considerable energy primarily from the EM propulsion flux.

The propulsion flux is determined by Rot E or dB/dt of the EM wave. Rot (E) is the incline (gradient) of the EM wave electric field. If the electric field of the electron finds itself on this gradient, a force is created between the fields which separates the electron from the EM wave. The force between the EM wave electric field and the electron increases linearly with the Rot(E) inclination of the electric field. Rot(E) is the same as the propulsion flux. The EM field force on the electron is therefore proportional to the propulsion flux.

Random encounter of the electron and the EM wave can occur in many ways. Consequently, the EM wave acts on the electron with a random force in a random direction, and only some forms of encounters are capable of knocking an electron out of the electron shell. Interesting are those forms of collisions between electrons and EM waves which generate the greatest force to knock the electron out from the electron shell.

The propulsion flux (dB/dt) that knocks the electron out depends on the amplitude of the magnetic density (B) and the frequency of the EM wave. The magnetic density of the EM wave varies sinusoidally (b = B · sin (ωt)). The sinusoid derivation at small angles is the same as the angle derivation (d (sin (ωt))/dt = d(ωt)/dt = ω).

Small angles ωt are interesting because an EM wave emits an electron under conditions where dB/dt is the largest, which is at ωt of small angles. As a result, the amplitude of the propulsion flux determined by dB/dt can be written in the form of I = k1 · B · ω. The k1 constant determines the shape of the atom and the charge of the electron, B is the amplitude of the magnetic density of the EM wave, while ω is the angular velocity of the EM wave.

Electric current generates, in general, intensity proportional to the square of the electric current (P = k · I2). Consequently, the power of propulsion flux acting on an electron can be written in the form of P = k3 · B2 · f2. The energy received by the electron from the EM wave is W = P · t. Time t is the time in which the propulsion flux acts on the electron. The time t = 1/f is followed by:

W = k3 · B2 · f

The energy of the EM wave on the electron increases linearly with the frequency of the EM wave, in the same way as the energy of the photon increases with the frequency according to the Planck’s law.

W = h · f

Let us compare the equation for the energy of the light wave of the EM wave, W = k · B2 · f, and the Planck equation of W = h · f. The equation of energy can be written as follows: h · f = k · B2 · f. The equation is divisible by k = f thus obtaining B2 = h/k. The parameters h and k are constants which indicates that the equations are only compatible with the B constants for all frequencies of the EM wave.

If the EM magnetic density of the B EM wave varied with distance from the source, the success of knocking out the photon would depend on the distance between the light source and the atom or electron that EM wave knocks out.

Comparison of the two equations of energy received by the electron from the EM wave shows that the EM wave magnetic density amplitude is constant for all frequencies as shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18 - Planck’s law is valid in the case where the EM wave magnetic density amplitude is constant for all frequencies.

Figure 16 illustrates why the EM wave magnetic density amplitude is always the same for all wavelengths of the EM wave. The attractive force of the magnetic field binding energy shortens the diameter of the magnetic ring. The electric field in the magnetic ring mutually deflects the points of the magnetic ring. The equilibrium of both forces establishes the geometric shape of the EM wave ring in Figure 16 which has the same amplitude of the magnetic field density in all conditions. We shall call it quantum amplitude of the EM wave magnetic density.

Energy of high-frequency EM wave

Two conditions must be fulfilled for knocking out the electron from the electron shell:

The force of the EM field on the electron must be greater than the attractive force of the electron on the atom; and

The energy that the electron receives from the EM wave must be greater than the binding energy of the electron in the atom.

F = k2 · B · f (constant times propulsion flux)

The given equations for the force and energy with which the EM wave acts on an electron are valid under conditions where the energy of the EM field greatly exceeds the binding energy of the electron. In this case, the electron slightly disturbs the EM wave’s magnetic density and its propulsion flux.

In the case where the binding energy of the electron is comparable to that of the EM wave, the electron absorbs a considerable part of the magnetic energy of the EM wave. Thus, the electron reduces the magnetic density of the EM wave and hence its propulsion flux. A smaller propulsion flux creates less force on the electron.

The EM wave can only deliver all its energy to the electron, and nothing more. If the EM wave does not contain enough energy, i.e. if the EM wave contains less energy than the binding energy of the electron in the atom, it can not knock the electron out of the electron shell.

At higher frequencies, the EM wave is smaller from the perspective of space and therefore it contains less and less energy if B is a constant and frequency is increasing. The extent to which the EM field of the EM wave collapses in collision with an electron depends on the spatial dimensions of the EM wave. The EM wave volume decreases approximately by the third exponent of the wave length or frequency. At high frequencies, the EM wave can only transfer W = k3 · B2 · f/f3 of energy, i.e. W = k3 · B2/f2, which is as much as the value shown by measurement of the x-ray photo-effect.

Figure 19 - Photons of only a certain frequency range can knock the electron out of the electron shell.

Science needs to find the way, on the basis of measurement, to connect the EM wave equations at low frequencies (W = k3 · B2 · f) and at high frequencies (W = k3 · B2/f2) into one common equation that could apply throughout the frequency range.

On the basis of the equations described above, we can conclude: Due to the small Rot E at low frequencies EM wave creates a force on an electron that is too small to knock the electron from the electron shell. The force with which the electron is bound to the atom is greater than the force of the EM wave on the electron. At low frequencies of the EM wave, Planck therefore did not notice the knocking out of electrons. By increasing the frequency of the EM wave, Rot E and thereby the force exerted on the electron increase which enables the knocking out of the electron. At high frequencies of the EM wave, the binding energy of the electron to the atom is greater than the energy that the EM wave sends to the electron by the thrust of force. Therefore, high frequencies have a lower ability to knock an electron out of the electron shell than visible light.

There is, however, a difference in the understanding of the W = f · h and W = k · B2 · f equations. In Planck’s equation, we understand the energy of a photon as the smallest piece of light. The equation applies only to light, and not to the properties of an electron. In the equation of W = k · B2 · f, however, the notion of energy is not related only to the property of light. B and f are bound to the properties of light, while k determines the basic properties of the electron, i.e., its charge, the shape of the circumference in the atom, and its binding energy.

The impact of force on an electron can also be illustrated with an example. When a moving electron enters the magnetic field, the latter exerts force on the electron. The electron and the magnetic field can also be viewed from a different angle, for example, as if the electron is stationary, while the magnetic field is changing or moving. In this case, too, force acts on the electron, for example, the force of the EM wave. The force in the EM wave shoves the electron similarly as a water wave acts on the surf.

Volume roundness of EM wave

The shape of the EM wave in Figure 16 and the amplitude of the magnetic density of the EM wave magnetic ring which is the same in all conditions, however, create the volume roundness of the EM wave. EM wave does not expand like a water wave, but travels over space as a volume of unacceptable energy package in the form of a volume-rounded EM wave formation, as shown in Figure 16. The energy density, of course, decreases with the distance from the source of light, however, not in the way of changing the energy structure of an individual EM wave, but rather by increasing the distance between individual EM waves, where there is no EM field in between.

Figure 20 - Thomas Young’s experiment shows that the EM wave does not change its spatial form when traveling through space.

The preserving of the geometric roundness (size) of the EM wave on its path is confirmed by the experiment carried out by Thomas Young at the beginning of the 19th century. The experiment showed that the EM wave travels through space as a spatially rounded energy formation, similar to a particle. When Young sent light through a narrow slit, a narrow beam of light was visible on the screen behind the slit. It is shown by Figure 20. The EM wave therefore has the size and shape which corresponds to the energy, similar to that of the material particle.

Energy reconstruction of EM waves

On its path, the light hits dust particles or other obstacles that deplete the energy of EM waves. Such energy depletion is reflected in the reduced size of the EM wave shown in Figure 17. Various energies of EM waves create EM waves with different diameters of the magnetic field ring. The forces within the EM wave ensure that the quantum amplitude of the EM wave magnetic density is maintained at the expense of reducing the size of the EM wave.

EM wave loses energy by reducing its size (diameter), while the amplitude of wave’s magnetic density is maintained. Such an EM wave, by maintaining magnetic density, preserves the intact ability of knocking electrons from the electron shell. The concept of the photon as a quantum of light is superfluous because the surface of the EM wave decreases continuously, and with its constant magnetic density it always produces the same effect in the knocking of electrons out of the electron shell.

EM wave is experiencing a major energy impoverishment. There is no light at the bottom of the oceans. The EM wave loses its energy by penetrating the water layer. It is lost as the EM wave decreases its diameter. The amplitude of the magnetic density, however, does not change until the EM wave energy is so weak that it simply disappears.

EM waves are also subject to energy depletion in high-gravity environments. When a light wave is trying to leave a celestial body, the gravitational force impedes the EM wave in rising from gravity. Along the way, EM wave overcomes gravity by force, whereby losing its energy. EM wave does not manage to exit the black hole because it uses all its energy to rise from gravity and dries out before leaving the black hole. However, the quantum amplitude of the magnetic density of EM waves which succeed in escaping from celestial bodies with high gravity is not reduced.

Quantum physics is often presented as something difficult to understand, although in the case of EM waves it is only about the tendency of nature toward the minimal energy state of the electric and magnetic fields and the propulsion flux, which is created based on the balancing of internal forces. Similar ways of creating quanta can also be expected in the field of nuclear physics.

Measurement of the length of the coherent EM waves chain

In the sunlight, we can see long chains of EM valves which are coherently interconnected. The lengths of coherent EM waves can be measured.

When an oil stain appears on a wet surface, the light is reflected in the form of a coloured rainbow. The reflection of light appears both at the top and on the underside of the oil layer. When the thickness of the oil layer is a multiple of the wavelength of the light, both reflections meet and coherently connect at the upper layer of the oil stain, which intensifies a certain wavelength (colour) of light.

The reflection of light on the oil stain allows for the measuring of the length of the coherent EM chain. By increasing the thickness of the oil layer, the intensity of the rainbow reflection decreases. Coherent EM chains are becoming too short for the beginning and end of a coherent chain of the same wave to meet at the top of the oil stain. The thickness of the oil layer, in which we can still notice modest residues of the rainbow reflection, represents half the length of the longest coherent EM waves incident on the oil layer.

Measurement of the diameter of the EM wave

The EM wave of light in Figure 16 may have a larger or smaller diameter than shown in Figure 17. The surface of the EM wave can be measured by Young’s interference experiment or double slit interferometer. The measurement scheme is shown in Figure 21.

Let us shed light on a screen with two parallel slits.

As Young enabled a simultaneous path of the light through both slits, side bands were noticed in addition to the two main spots, as shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21 - When the light is enabled to simultaneously travel through the two slits, side bands are noticed in addition to the two main spots on the screen.

As the EM waves travel through the slit, they more or less brush up against the edge of the slit. At the edge of the slit, the EM wave is distorted. The distorted, broken and energy-depleted EM waves fly away from the slit into different directions. Despite the EM waves hitting at the edge of the slit, the base beam, with an adequate slit size, remains energy-intense and bright, as shown in Figure 21.

Figure 22 - EM wave from slit A passes through EM wave from slit B. EM waves move through each other. At the passage, there is a mutual exchange of energy between them.

The energy-depleted EM waves of the first slit, marked dashed in Figure 22, pass through the energy-rich EM waves of the second slit and through the B beam. EM waves move through one another. At the passing of certain EM waves through others, a coherent connection and mutual exchange of energy between them occurs. The energy-poor EM chains from slit A are energized, while the energy-rich EM chains from slit B lose some of their energy.

Figure 23 - After their encounter, EM waves A and B do not maintain the energy they had before the encounter.

Figure 23 shows a smaller EM wave, given its energy and diameter, arising from slit A and, in terms of energy and diameter, a larger EM wave from slit B. Their encounter based on coherent connecting creates a turbulent EM wave of irregular shapes that is energetically richer than the incoming EM waves and is drawn in the middle of the image. The turbulence occurring during the subsequent encounter can again tear up the EM wave, also by amplifying EM wave in the direction A at the expense of reducing the EM wave energy in the direction B.

However, it is not necessary that the waves tear apart after the encounter. In the case of encounters of sufficiently harmonized EM waves, the coherent forces can permanently connect these two waves into a common and connected EM wave.

The lines on the screen in Young’s measurement show that the EM waves from the A slit intensified at the expense of the energy of the B beam. The side bands in Figure 21 show that EM waves created coherent connections and exchanged energy at encounter only when the phases of one and the other wave were sufficiently harmonized.

The energy exchange between the rays A and B did not only take place by the side bands, but also by the reduced energy of the original B beam. Measurement showed the energy weakening of the B beam when it encountered energy-weak EM waves from slit A.

Young’s attempt enables the measurement of the surface of EM waves

The EM wave behind the slit can interfere in the form of the lines displayed in Figure 21 only in the case where the EM wave has a sufficiently large diameter that the same EM wave can simultaneously fall to both slits. In the experiment of Thomas Young, the slits need to be close enough to each other in order for one part of the same EM wave to pass through one slit and the other one through the other slit. Only EM waves that are phase-coordinated at the entrance connect on the other side of the slit in the form of the side bands shown.

When the slits are positioned to far apart, more than the diameter of the EM wave, the same EM wave can not comprise them. In such cases, we do not notice the typical interference shown in Figure 21.

Therefore, Young’s experiment offers the possibility of measuring the diameter of the EM waves. The greater the distance between the slits, the fewer EM waves include both slits simultaneously and the lesser the side bands. The distance between the slits that still enables us to observe the dim outlines of the side bands represents the largest diameter of the observed EM waves.

On the oil stain, we can measure the length of the coherent EM waves chain, and with Young’s experiment we can measure the diameter of the EM waves in a coherent chain. We therefore measure the size of the coherent EM waves of light traveling in the package.

The term coherent EM wave denotes a chain of interconnected EM waves as shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24 - We can measure the size, both length and diameter, of a coherent EM wave.

The terms EM wave and photon intertwine in the text. The photon is understood in physics as the basic particle, the energy quantum of the EM fields. The photon is by definition a point. It moves with the speed of light.

The photon energy depends on its wavelength, but the photon as a point does not have a wavelength. EM waves create long coherent chains, while photons do not co-operate with one another. Strange?

This poor understanding of the EM wave properties was solved by the physicists with the definition of a particle called photon. They did not have an excuse for the definition of a photon because the properties of the photon can not be measured and thus confirmed. Planck’s law is dubious too! All the attributes attributable to the photon are the properties of a conceivable EM wave, as measurable endowments.

The photon is defined ambiguously, therefore, in this text I focus on the EM wave which is to some degree synonymous with the photon. In this text, the photon is occasionally mentioned only because the term is prevalent and well-known. But semantically, even when I mention a photon, this refers to a more understandable and more representative EM wave.

Movement of EM wave

A coherent EM wave can be plotted in the form of a series of EM waves, i.e. in the form of a series of magnetic tubes, as shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25 - The flux of energy of the electric and magnetic fields into propulsion energy and back is created by the movement of the EM wave.

The electric and magnetic fields of the left-hand tube in Figure 25 create WP propulsion energy in the direction of the Poynting vector. The electric and magnetic fields of the EM wave wither after the transfer of energy to the propulsion energy and leave both the energy and the initiative to the propulsion energy at the center of the diagram. Propulsion energy creates the right tube of the electric and magnetic fields and, when creating the right magnetic tube, drains its energy, as shown in the diagram in Figure 15. The right tube also produces the next new propulsion energy that generates the next electric and magnetic field tube and the process continues. The magnetic tubes created by the EM wave on the way are directed by the EM wave in the direction of travel, without scattering the energy left or right.

The EM wave is therefore volume-rounded waveform of the electric and magnetic fields that is isolated from its surrounding. If there is no external disturbance, the EM wave travels around space in a volume-constant and stable form. Of course, it can encounter obstacles. Such an obstacle takes away part of its energy regardless of its isolation. This reduces the energy of the EM wave and decreases its diameter in proportion to the lost energy. When the surrounding area takes away all its energy, part by part, the diameter of the magnetic torus is reduced to zero and the EM wave is eliminated.

EM node

The electric and magnetic fields in the EM wave in Figure 15 oscillate simultaneously, therefore both have maximum and minimum values at the same time. In the LC circuit in Figure 9, the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields are exchanged. The electric field is maximal when the magnetic field is minimal, and vice versa. Fields swing with the time delay of π/2.

The electric and magnetic fields in the LC circuit form the shape of a standing wave. The standing EM wave can also be created in an empty space when the EM wave is deflected from the base so that the incident and deflecting waves flow together to create a standing EM wave. The latter does not travel but oscillates immovably. The diagram in Figure 26 shows the oscillation of the electric and magnetic fields in the standing EM wave, which creates the shape of an EM node.

Figure 26 - The oscillation of the electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields and oscillation of the energies of the electric (WE) and the magnetic (WB) fields and of the propulsion energy (WP) in the EM node.

Each standing wave creates peaks and nodes between them. Peaks swing in the same location. The EM node connects the electric and magnetic fields in a ball to obtain the shape of the torus in Figure 27. Such an EM node can be spatially and energetically autonomous and even unconnected with other EM nodes.

The diagram in Figure 26 shows the oscillation of the electric and magnetic fields and of the propulsion energy of the EM node. The magnetic field is lagging behind the electric field for π/2 periods. The energy of the electric field oscillates in positive energy values, and the magnetic field in negative energy values. Propulsion energy oscillates between positive and negative values, therefore propulsion energy (Poynting vector) changes its direction every quarter of the period. By alternately changing the direction of the propulsion energy, the EM field is directed into motion forward or backward. The oscillation of the propulsion energy back and forth creates conditions for the oscillation of the EM node on the spot.

Shape of the EM node

Like in the EM wave, the EM node magnetic field also has the shape of a ring or a torus, as shown in Figure 27. The magnetic field in the torus oscillates and changes direction every half period. The electric field oscillates in the magnetic torus with the phase delay of π/2. The propulsion energy of the WP circulates in the torus alternately forwards and backwards, as shown in Figure 27. The E, B and WP vectors are mutually perpendicular, similarly as with the EM wave.

Figure 27 - The shape and structure of the EM node.

The FB force of the magnetic field in Figure 28 reduces the length of the magnetic ring torus based on the binding energy and the associated attractive force. An electric field seeks to increase the magnetic ring circumference with reflective force. The electric field mutually reflects the points of the magnetic torus, as indicated by the FE force. With the reflective force, the electric field does not permit the arbitrary reduction of the magnetic torus circumference. With a certain circumference of the magnetic field torus, a balance is created between the FB attractive force and the FE reflective force, whereby the electric and magnetic fields create a stable shape of the oscillation of the EM node or the magnetic torus.

Formation of an EM node

An EM node can have negligible energy and binding energy. The energy and the binding energy of a node can be equated so that the total energy of the EM node is zero. This, according to the law of conservation of energy, enables the creation of an EM node spontaneously from an empty space. The empty space is not energetically calm. Space includes an immense babbling of energy. A magnetic torus starts to be formed from the slight twitches of electric and magnetic fields. The fields of the resulting magnetic torus have insignificant densities and, consequently, insignificant forces FE and FB that create the ‘embryo’ of the magnetic torus as shown in the above drawing in Figure 28.

Figure 28 - Increasing own energy of the EM node reduces its diameter and extends it into the tube.

Such a toroidal volume is poorly rounded and also quite unstable. In such an ‘embryo’ of torus, there is a negligible amount of electric and magnetic field energy. The total amount of energy, i.e. the sum of energy and negative binding energy, is slightly different from zero. The formation or disappearance of the EM node or the magnetic torus therefore does not affect the energy balance of the space. EM nodes constantly appear, transform, exist and disappear in space. An EM node arises from random fields, it exists for some time and then it can die down, but it can also persist and develop on the basis of environmental energy impact.

Such an EM node embryo can consequently randomly increase or decrease. When insignificant EM nodes meet under certain conditions, they fall into each other. Two magnetic toruses (EM nodes) merge similarly as an electron enters an electron shell. This intensifies their electric and magnetic fields. Higher density of fields in turn generate greater FE and FB forces and a more stable magnetic torus. The torus is thickened, and the volume decreases, as shown in the middle drawing in Figure 28. The magnetic torus can continue to gain energy. In the process, its diameter is diminished, and primarily the magnetic torus tangential energy increases.

Such an EM node is the fundamental building block of matter. The fundamental building blocks of matter in the form of EM nodes can be created spontaneously without external influences. The universe could be formed by the random creation of EM nodes and their further integration into electrons, protons and atoms. The Big Bang is an interesting explanation of the origin of the universe, but it is not the only one and is not necessary to explain the origin of matter and space.

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

Figure 27 shows a magnetic torus which can be regarded as the smallest elementary particle, even though it can disintegrate. It can disintegrate into a separate electric and magnetic field. The unconnected electric and magnetic fields are not spatially and energetically durable. The material particle at the lowest level, which has a recognizable shape and maintains it, is therefore a magnetic torus or an EM node.

Axion

EM nodes were discovered by Peccei and Quinn in 1977 and named axions. An axion is a hypothetical elementary particle that is free of magnetic moment, charge, and rotational quantities. Axions were observed in a research group at the Leicester University where seasonal oscillation of axion density was observed for which no conventional explanation of their origin was found. One possible explanation is the origin of axions in the Sun’s core. In significant quantities, axions can also be detected in X-ray radiation on Earth. After its discovery, axion did not experience a considerable interest in physics in subsequent years, as it is not consistent with the standard model as the elementary particle.

Neutrino

The axion develops and grows as shown in Figure 28. When the axion is energized, it acquires the shape of a tube, as in Figure 28 and Figure 29. In the cross-section of the tube, the electric and magnetic fields fluctuate as shown in the diagram in Figure 26.

Figure 29 - With the increase in energy, an EM node obtains the shape of a tube of a certain length. The tube length is determined by the standing wave of the propulsion energy.

Figure 29 shows the direction of the magnetic field circling along the circumference of a tube. The electric field is directed perpendicular to the surface of the tube, out of or into the tube. Propulsion energy (WP) is running or oscillating along the tube. Along the tube of the EM field the propulsion energy generates the standing wave shown in Figure 30. Only those lengths of the magnetic field tube are stable which, by their length, create a standing wave. The standing wave determines the length of the EM tube as a multiple of π/2 of the length of the wave of the propulsion energy.

Figure 30 - The standing wave determines the length of the EM node tube as a multiple of π/2 of the wave length.

The EM node changes the length of the standing wave in Figure 29 with quantum leaps. On the basis of energy exchange with its surroundings the EM node can obtain energy and, therefore, at a given energy of the EM node, it extends into a tube with the length of π/2 of the propulsion energy wave. A rapid quantum leap of extension of the magnetic field tube occurs. Such an extended EM node continues to exchange energy and, in the case of repeated energy enrichment, skips into the EM node of π of the wavelength of the propulsion energy. Even then, its energy can grow when encountering other EM nodes, and when the EM node is sufficiently energized again, it is possible to skip in the EM node of 3π/2 of the wavelength of the propulsion energy.

Each length of the EM node tube therefore has a certain amount of energy and binding energy in the electric and magnetic fields and in the propulsion energy, in accordance with the length of the tube. This amount of energy, however, creates a mass that is proportional to the lengths of EM nodes. The tree different lengths of EM nodes are seen as three basic flavours of neutrinos (electron, muon, or tau). The magnetic tube of the standing wave can only have the lengths of the multiples of π/2, which creates the quantum properties of the neutrino.

The electric field and the magnetic field due to symmetrical oscillation around the zero value are not detectable outside the EM node, therefore we do not measure the charge of a neutrino. The standing wave of propulsion energy detects neutrino measurement as the rotational quantities of the neutrino.

Left and right rotational quantities

An elementary particle can have left and right rotational quantities (spin). The left and right spin of a particle originates from similar laws as elliptical or circular polarization of an EM wave.

In the elliptical polarization of the EM wave, the electric and magnetic field vectors do not oscillate along the line, but rather circulate along an ellipse or a circle. Circular polarization of the EM wave is shown in Figure 31. An EM wave can have either left or right rotation.

Figure 31 - EM wave of light polarized in a circle.

The rotation of an EM wave is also illustrated in Figure 32.

Figure 32 - Polarization of the EM wave of light creates a linear, elliptical or circular oscillation of the magnetic field torus of the EM wave.

The EM wave magnetic field has the shape of a ring. All three diagrams show the cross-section of the EM wave as travelling in the direction of the cylinder axis.

The left diagram shows a symmetrically shaped EM wave where the magnetic field creates a torus with correct shapes. The magnetic field fluctuates along the sine function. Synchronous with the magnetic field, electrical field appears throughout the rotation of the magnetic field ring which also fluctuates in the sine function so that the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other.

When the EM wave is disturbed by an obstacle, the disturbance distorts it, for example, into a linearly polarized EM wave. The diagram in the middle of Figure 32 shows the EM wave, where the magnetic field fluctuates so that the empty space in the middle of the magnetic ring oscillates up and down.

The magnetic field above and below the ring is oscillating more strongly than on the left and right side of the ring. Strong changes in the magnetic field above and below create a strong oscillation of the electric field above and below the magnetic ring and the weaker amplitudes of the electric field left and right. Thus, the oscillation of the EM wave represents a linear-polarized EM wave. Similar linear oscillations can occur in any direction, which means that the EM wave can be linear-polarized in optional direction.

The diagram on the right shows that the emptiness inside the magnetic ring can rotate along an ellipse or a circle. This rotation can be in the direction of left or right rotation, in the form of a circle or any flattened ellipse. Such polarization is called circular or elliptic polarization.

Like the EM wave, the magnetic torus in Fig. 27 and Fig. 29 can also oscillate. It can oscillate in the pattern of elliptical or circular polarization. Thus, the oscillation of the magnetic torus or axion is detected by the measuring devices as the left or right rotational quantities (spin) of the particle.

The neutrino does not have an electrical charge nor a mechanism for generating an electric charge. Consequently, neutrinos act symmetrically with regard to spin. For example, if I observe a fan from one side, I see it turn to the left, however, if I observe the same rotation from the other side of the fan, I notice it turn to the right. Similarly, due to symmetry in neutrino, only the rotational quantities of neutrino ½ are measured, but the measurement does not recognize left or right rotational quantities.

Electron and positron

The length of the magnetic field tube in Fig. 29 can be extended over the 3π/2 wavelength of the standing wave of the propulsion energy, by interconnection of the neutrons. When the length of the axion tube is extended to 2π of the wavelength of the propulsion energy, the start and end of the tube are connected into a larger torus and the connection generates an electron or a positron. There is no longer a standing wave in the electron or positron. The electric and magnetic fields and the propulsion energy circulate along the newly created torus, as shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33 - The magnetic torus tube connects to a larger torus which is the base of the electron and the positron.

The wavelength of the moving current determines the length of the newly created torus, and therefore the size of the torus of the electron or positron. The electrons and positrons are consequently of the same size and mass.

When an EM node is tied into the shape of an electron, the amount of binding energy in relation to the positive energy increases. The amount of binding energy is increased for two reasons.

Figure 34 - The circulation of the EM torus creates the conditions for the prevailing of negative energy in the electron, thus furthering the stability of the electron.

The EM field circulates the electron torus as shown in Figure 34. The propulsion energy has a mass, and therefore the rotational speed of the propulsion energy creates a centrifugal force, denoted in Fig. 34 as FS. This force is resisted by the force of attraction of the magnetic field which rounds the EM field into the shape of the electron torus. A larger magnetic field increases the amount of binding energy of the newly created torus.

The electric field also creates binding energy with the force of attraction. On the circumference of the electron torus there are electric fields with different directions on the opposite sides of the torus, some in the positive direction, others in the negative direction, and thus, the electric force also creates an attractive force and decreases the diameter of the electron torus. In addition to the magnetic field, the electric field also creates the binding energy of the electric field. The torus of the electron thus decreases volumetrically and due to the increase in the binding energy, the EM node remains trapped in a stable electron of quantum properties.

Electric charge

The electron and positron differ in electric charge. The electron has a negative electric charge, and the positron a positive one. The difference between them is derived from two different modes of fluctuation of the EM torus.

The electric and magnetic fields of the axion fluctuate with a time lag of π/2. The electric and magnetic fields of the axion can be displaced in two ways. In one case, the electric field overtakes the magnetic field, and in the other, the magnetic field overtakes the electric field. A positive and negative electric charge arise from one or the other delay between the electric field and the magnetic field.

Both potential electric and magnetic fields can be symmetrical and neither has any advantages over the other. At the time of the formation of an electron or a positron, one of the delays between the electric and the magnetic fields randomly appears, as shown in the above diagrams in Figure 35.

Figure 35 - In the EM node, both electric and magnetic fields are displaced by π/2. Their shift is in one direction or another. One delay is generated by an electron, and another by a positron.

The electric and magnetic field vectors and the direction of the propulsion energy remain mutually perpendicular both to the left and to the right of the diagram in Figure 35. However, the vectors on the left and the right side have opposite directions, as shown in the bottom diagram in Figure 35.

The electric and magnetic fields fluctuate and alternately change their values and directions along the tube of the torus. The electric field alternately points into the tube, and half a period later it points from the tube, as shown on the left and right sides of Figure 36.

Figure 36 - The moving current in the left diagrams prevents radiation of the electric field into the environment, and in the right diagrams the radiation in the middle of the torus.

The electric and magnetic fields move the propulsion energy by displacing the propulsion energy through the inner circumference of the pipe. This is shown in the right diagrams in Figure 36. Half of the period later, the propulsion energy is displaced to the outer circumference of the tube, which is illustrated by the diagrams on the left side of Figure 36. The propulsion energy is not transient to the electric field. In each half of the period, the propulsion energy moves from one edge to the other edge of the torus and does not leave the electric field through, once in the direction towards the interior of the torus, then in the direction towards the outside of the torus, as shown in Figure 36.

The density of the propulsion energy varies synchronously with the density of the electric field.

In the case of positron, the propulsion energy in the neighbourhood of the torus lets a positive charge through. Half a period later, when the torus generates a negative charge, the propulsion energy prevents radiation of this charge into the environment. Positron therefore radiates a positive charge in the surrounding area. This example is illustrated in the above diagrams in Figure 36.

In electron, the electric charge and the propulsion energy are harmonized exactly inversely. Propulsion energy releases the negative charge into the surrounding area, and restrains the positive charge, as shown in the lower diagram in Figure 36.

Propulsion energy limits the electric field in the same way as the latter prevents the radiation of the electric field from the EM wave. EM wave and EM nodes differ so much that the propulsion energy directs the entire electric field of the EM wave into the interior of the EM wave along its entire path. For the EM node, however, the electric and magnetic fields oscillate with a certain delay. Thereby, the propulsion energy alternately directs the electric field first into the torus, then out of it.

Such synchronization of the electric field and the propulsion energy is established that with electron the propulsion energy only lets the negative electric field in the environment. Electron torus therefore only radiates the negative charge. In the case of positron, the propulsion energy only leads the positive charge towards the environment.

There is no detectable electric field pointing into the interior of the torus tube in the vicinity of the torus. EM oscillation of the torus thus creates an electric charge.

Nucleon

When an electron and a positron meet, they are bound into an exotic atom, as shown in Figure 37. In physics, such a bound state of electrons and positrons is understood as their annihilation with the intermediate formation of the positronium particle, thereby generating radiation energy. The emitted photon has negligible energy when compared to the internal energy of the electron and the positron. The bounding of the electrons and the positrons (annihilation) does not mean their elimination, but the formation of a new particle binding the electron and the positron.

The electron and the positron fall into each other similarly as the electron falls into the electron shell, thus generating a new particle. Their binding, with this collision, plunges them into deeper interconnection with binding energy. The bound state creates binding energy, and at the same time they emit energy in the form of a photon.

Positron and electron have different electrical charges, so they are mutually attracted by the electric field. In the event of their collision, propulsion energy is maintained between them, separating them and creating a barrier between them.

Propulsion energy generates the barrier in the same way as it isolates the electric field in the EM wave. With the connection, the electron and the positron create a particle that is ignored by physics.

Figure 37 - The electron and positron toruses collide into a new particle, thereby emitting a photon.

In the connection between the electron and the positron, electric fields are compensated, therefore their connection has no electric charge. The magnetic moment and spin are also compensated, so the newly formed particle is hidden from measuring methods. It only has a mass which represents a double mass of an electron, increased by the mass of the binding energy between them.

As expected, the electron and positron connections are spontaneously created everywhere throughout the universe and radiate. Photons are detected as EM background radiation, which is the same radiation as is attributed to the background radiation due to the Big Bang.

Figure 38 - Positrons and electrons are bound in temporarily stable particles (quarks) as they are detected in collisions of atomic nuclei.

The integration of the electron and the positron into a bound particle is the first phase of the formation of a nucleon. Figure 38 shows the phase development of the nucleon. It starts with separate electrons and positrons. At position A, electron and positron are shown separate and unbound. At position B, they are bound in the same way as shown in Figure 37. They are attracted by different electrical charges of electrons and positrons. At position B, the total toruses of the electron or positron is no longer drawn, but only the intersections of the electron and positron. In the same way, only intersections are plotted in the following drawings. At position C, the binding of electron and positron attracts another positron and produces the up quark or up antiquark, depending on whether the electron or the positron is situated in the centre. This connection can continue to extend, for example, as shown in position D. At position D, full lines show the forces of attraction, while dashed lines reflect the repulsive forces between electrons and positrons. Electrons and positrons are spaced apart due to repulsive forces, creating conditions for further integration of electrons and positrons towards the formation of a nucleon. The electron and positron connections create the up quarks and down quarks which are the building blocks of nucleons, i.e., protons and neutrons.

The form of connection at position D of Figure 38 has the properties of a down quark. When we break a proton in a collider, individual electrons or positrons are recognized in the debris, while the measuring methods do not detect the particles at position B because they have no charge, magnetic moment or spin. However, we detect up quarks and down quarks. The structure at position D is strong enough to maintain itself for a short period of time after the collision.

Measurement methods and measurement results are fairly indeterminate for recognizing how the up quarks and down quarks become bound into a nucleus.

We can break a proton in an accelerator. Individual debris are seen as quarks. The observed oscillations of the quarks are short-lived. Soon after the breakdown of the proton, they are reconstructed back into the nucleus if they find the appropriate building blocks in the neighbourhood. Debris may also exist in the form of separate electrons. The positrons resulting from the breakdown of the proton, however, also do not last for a long time, as they quickly find an electron they bind with into the electron-positron particle.

Strong nuclear forces

Nuclear building blocks (quarks, protons, etc.) are composed of EM nodes generated by electric and magnetic fields and propulsion energy, as shown in Figure 27. The mass of the proton is in the size class of 1 GeV, and its size or diameter is in the size class of 10-15 m. The properties of the proton indicate extremely strong electric and magnetic fields within the proton.

The electric and magnetic fields and the propulsion energy are balanced at each point of the nuclear building block. Consequently, there are no significant forces among the individual EM field points in spite of the extremely strong EM fields in the nuclear building blocks.

Let me illustrate this equilibrium with an example which is easier to understand. When a jet of water flows out of a tube all water molecules are balanced in it. All molecules have the same direction and there are no mentionable forces among the molecules. A jet of water can have a lot of energy, but it does not affect the mutual redistribution of water molecules in the jet. The jet of water flows in the form of a correct arc regardless of speed, flux, energy, and other factors inside the jet, because each water molecule in the jet is energy-balanced with adjacent molecules.

The energy-balanced points of the nuclear building block do not create internal forces that would attempt to reform or disassemble the nuclear building block. Within the atomic building block, there are no distinct forces between the individual points. Each point within the atomic building block is consequently stable regardless of the density of the electric and magnetic fields.

However, if we want to break a nuclear particle in a collider the EM field, in response to any deformation of the atomic nucleus, creates strong forces that try to maintain the particle in its stable form. These powerful EM forces within nuclear particles are called strong nuclear forces.

ATOM

The atom consists of an atomic nucleus and electrons that circulate in the electron shell around the nucleus.

Atomic nucleus

The equation E = mc2 describes the energy contained in the mass of matter. This equation, however, leaves aside the question of the amount of negative binding energy in the matter. The amount of negative binding energy in the atomic nucleus is even greater than the amount of positive energy forms.

When binding or breaking atomic nuclei, these can experience varied mass changes. The mass of a nucleus, as a rule, is not equal to the sum of the masses of building blocks in atomic nuclei before their binding. Two atomic nuclei of deuterium or heavy hydrogen, which bind into helium, do not have the same mass as the helium atom nucleus. Upon fusion of nuclei seemingly unacceptable combinations are possible, for example, if the mass of the particles increases when nuclei fuse while at the same time, we detect the emitted energy.

The atomic masses approximately coincide with the sum of the masses of neutrons and protons in the nucleus. Nucleons of an atomic nucleus are connected by different quantities of binding energies which are unique for each type of nucleus and the result of which are different and unique masses of atomic nuclei. Science has not yet succeeded in finding a law that would determine the mass of the atomic nucleus on the basis of its building blocks, therefore the mass of atomic nuclei was determined only experimentally. The change in their mass by fusion or splitting is due to the change of:

the amount of positive energies in the atomic nucleus, and

the amount of negative binding energy of the atomic nucleus,

as shown by the schematic representation of the energy of the atomic nucleus in Fig. 39.

On the left side of the image, the amount of positive and negative energy of the nuclei A and B prior to fusion is shown. On the right, three possible fusions of the A and B nuclei are presented.

Figure 39 - The energy emitted by the fusion of atomic nuclei is affected both by the change of positive and negative forms of energies.

In the first presented variant, the value of the positive energy of the nuclei (W) as well as the negative binding energy (bW) increases with fusion. Another variant of nuclear fusion shows a decrease in W energy and an increase of bW, while the third variant increases W while maintaining bW. In general, any of these energies can be increased, reduced or preserved. The changes in the bW and W energies influence the change in the total energy of atomic nuclei after fusion, and consequently also the change in the mass of atomic nuclei upon fusion. The increasing of the amount of energy or binding energy in the fusion of the atomic nucleus means an increase in the mass of the atomic nuclei, while the reduction in either of them decreases the mass.

The change in the W and bW energies in the fusion of atomic nuclei is also reflected in the release of energy. The emitted energy is the result of both the change in the positive energy dW and the change in the negative bonding energy dbW in the atomic nucleus in the nuclear fusion.

The table below shows six variants (first column of the table) of atomic nuclei fusion. The table shows the changes in fusion masses and energy. The second and third columns describe how the absolute value of the positive and negative binding energy changes upon nuclear fusion. Consequently, the mass of the atomic nucleus changes, as shown in the fourth column. The change in the energy and binding energy of the atomic nucleus is reflected either in the irradiated energy (exothermic reactions) or in the form of a demand for energy input (endothermic reactions), which is shown in the last column.

Abs

(dW)

Abs

(dbW)

Mass

Energy response to fusion

1

zero

increases

greater

emits energy dbW

2

zero

decreases

smaller

supplies energy dbW

3

decreases

zero

smaller

emits energy dW

4

increases

zero

greater

supplies energy dW

5

decreases

increases

either one

emits energy dW + dbW

6

increases

decreases

either one

supplies energy dW + dbW

When more detailed measurement is made, experimental physics will show that perhaps some of these options do not exist.

We are used to thinking that fusion emits the quantity of energy that equals the decrease in the mass of both nuclei in fusion. This example is described under number 3. In general, in fusion of atomic nuclei, for example, we can notice a combination which is unexpected at first glance. The example under number 1 shows that in fusion the masses of fused nuclei can increase together with the emitted energy, whereby the energy balance of the system is not transgressed. The increase in mass occurs as a result of an increase in the binding energy. At the same time, the fusion ensures compliance with energy balance by emitting the energy corresponding to an increase in the binding energy of the nucleus. Thus, as the mass of the atomic nucleus increases, energy is emitted.

The mass of the atomic nuclei changes in a different way and is not in an unambiguous connection with the radiated energy, as could be wrongly concluded on the basis of the equation E = mc2. Fusion of nuclei can also radiate energy by increasing the mass.

On the basis of changes in the masses at fusion, we can not deduce the amount of energy emitted by individual fusion of atomic nuclei until we separately measure the changes in the amount of energy and binding energy in the atomic nucleus at the time of fusion.

The energy and binding energy of the atomic nucleus before and after fusion is measurable. This opens new possibilities for further development of physics. It is especially measurable when observing fusion during which one element fuses into another, for example, deuterium into helium. Measurement of masses and energy emissions will allow for the determination of the amount of energy and negative binding energy in atomic nuclei.

Until we have such measurement it is not possible to evaluate the relation of the Sun’s emanating energy in relation to the change in the mass of the Sun in the fusion of heavy hydrogen into helium. The emitted energy of the Sun can be much greater than the decrease in its mass according to the E = mc2 equation.

Electron shell

Electrons circulate around the atomic nucleus in the electron shell. The size and shape of the electron shell is determined by the frequency of the electric field oscillation in the electron, itself determined by the internal structure of the electron, which is shown in the diagram in Figure 40. The own oscillation of the electron’s electric field is described in the section titled “The Electron and the Proton”.

Figure 40 - Electric field oscillation in the electron. Propulsion energy only leaves negative sub-periods of the electric field into the electron’s environment.

Propulsion energy only leaves the negative sub-periods of the electric field in the electron’s surroundings, as shown in Figure 40. Positive electric fields remain isolated within the electron and are not detectable in the vicinity of the electron.

Circulation of an electron around an atomic nucleus

The own oscillation of the electric field of the electron shown in Fig. 40 determines the path of the electron in the electron shell around the atomic nucleus.

The oscillation of the electron’s electric field determines the shape of the electron shell. On the lower shell (K), the electric field of the electron makes two periods of oscillation during one round of the electron around the atomic nucleus. The harmonized circulation of the electron around the atomic nucleus and the oscillation of the electric field of the electron determine the ‘quantum’ path of the electron around the atomic nucleus which is the same in all conditions, as indicated in the diagram on the left-hand side of Figure 41.

Figure 41 - Elliptical circulation of an electron around an atomic nucleus.

The electron circles around the atomic nucleus in the shape of an ellipse. The geometric dimensions of the electron shell in the form of an ellipse are determined by the frequency of the oscillation of the electron’s electric field in Figure 40 and the mass of the electron. When the electron is on the longer axis of the ellipse and distant from the atomic nucleus, the electric field of the electron is the strongest. The electric field attracts an electron towards the atomic nucleus. However, when the electron approaches the atomic nucleus and is located on the shorter axis of the ellipse, it has a high kinetic energy. When the electron is close to the atomic nucleus, its electric field is eliminated and thus also the forces of attraction between the electron and the nucleus. The electron goes past the nucleus. As it moves away, its electric field intensifies again, and it is again attracted by the nucleus. With the circulation of the electron along the ellipse around the atomic nucleus, the potential energy of the electric field and the kinetic energy arising from the velocity and mass of the electron stream between each other.

When two electrons are caught in the electron shell around the atom, they alternately emit the negative charge. In the inner (K) shell, therefore, two electrons can circulate and do not interfere with each other as shown in the right side of Figure 41.

An electron can also circulate around an atomic nucleus in such a way that it causes several oscillations of the electric field during one circle of the electron path around the nucleus. Such a circulation curve is larger and belongs to the higher shells of electrons around the nucleus. When the third electron appears, the electromagnetic forces between the electrons do not allow its placement in the first electron shell. It can be placed in the second shell. Since the second shell has larger spatial dimensions, and since the electric field of the electron makes more oscillations in one round of the electron around the atomic nucleus, eight electrons can be placed in this shell.

Circulating electron does not emit energy

Electric or magnetic oscillations generally generate energy in the form of EM waves. If an antenna of a radio transmitter is connected to alternating current, it emits EM waves.

The electric field of the electron also fluctuates, as shown in Figure 40. The electron circulates around the atomic nucleus. The question arises as to why this oscillating electric field of the electron and the electron circulating around the atomic nucleus do not emit EM waves.

The balanced EM oscillations enclosed in themselves oscillate autonomously and do not radiate energy. The feature of stable EM oscillations is that the oscillation system is energetically balanced so that the forces between the energy fields direct and return these fields towards the oscillating system and do not allow their radiation outside the system.

Such a circulation of the electron can be compared with the revolving of the Moon around the Earth. The Moon possesses a certain potential energy that drags it towards the Earth, and a kinetic energy derived from its velocity which tries to distance it from the Earth. If these energies are balanced, the Moon circulates around the Earth. The same is true of the potential energies in the EM field of the electron around the atomic nucleus, derived from attractive and repulsive forces between electric and magnetic fields, and the propulsion energy which is a form of kinetic energy. The concept of kinetic energy is used for the motive energy of material particles. However, when we talk about energy which is a consequence of the movement of energy fields, we are talking about the propulsion energy.

Just as the coincidence of potential and kinetic energies ensure the circulation of the Moon around the Earth, whereby the Moon does not fall on the Earth or escape it, the matching of the energies of the electric and magnetic fields and the propulsion energy creates the conditions for the circulating electron not to emit energy.

Such a system creates a stable oscillation of these energies and does not emit energy in the form of radiation. An energy-efficient system is represented by EM wave, axion, and other elementary particles, in which we observe the electric and magnetic field oscillation enclosed within itself.

Things are different if the electron finds itself in circumstances where the energy of the electric and magnetic field and the propulsion energy are not balanced. In this case, the oscillations of electric and magnetic fields emit energy. When the electron passes from one shell to another, its energy is not in a balanced and stable energy oscillation during the transition. An energy-unbalanced electron transmits excess energy in the form of an EM wave (photon) during the transition from a higher to a lower electron shell.

The frequency of the emitted EM wave is determined by the frequency of circulation of the electron around the atomic nucleus. The electron in a higher shell has a lower frequency of circulation around the atomic nucleus than in a lower shell. When an electron passes from a higher shell to a lower one, its frequency increases when falling. Together with the current frequency of electron circulation, the emitted EM wave also appears which has the same frequency at all times as the current frequency of the electron circulation.

At the beginning of the fall, i.e., at the beginning of the transient phenomenon, the electron radiates the EM wave with a lower frequency, and at the end of the transition between the shells it radiates at a higher frequency. As the frequency of the electron’s circulation increases during the falling from one shell to another, so does the frequency of the EM wave. The increase in the emitted frequency of the EM wave is shown in the above diagram in Figure 42.

A coherent EM wave, which does not have the same frequency and wavelength across its entire length, is not energy-balanced. Such an EM wave changes its shape along the way. After a few oscillations, it is transformed into an EM wave of the same wavelength and the same frequency across its entire length, as shown in the diagram below in Figure 42.

Figure 42 - The electron in the transition between the shells emits EM wave of different wavelengths (upper diagram). The latter is not stable and is along the way converted into an EM wave of the same wavelengths (bottom diagram).

After the transient phenomenon, the frequency of the EM wave is stabilized. The balanced frequency is higher than the frequency of electron circulation in the higher shell form which the electron is falling, but also lower than the frequency of electron circulation in the lower shell to which the electron falls.

The frequency of the EM wave does not depend on the energy of the electron in a particular electron shell, but only on the frequencies of the circulation of the electron around the nucleus in that shell. In various shells, the electron circulates at a different frequency and this frequency of circulation of the electron around the atomic nucleus determines the frequency and wavelength of the emitted EM wave.

The emitted EM wave can have different energies at the same frequency. Figure 17 shows that each EM wave has the same energy density of the EM field. An EM wave can have different volumes of the EM wave, depending on the diameter of the EM wave and its wavelength. The electron emits various forms of energy of the EM wave so that at a certain frequency of the EM wave it creates the EM wave diameter corresponding to the EM wave energy, which corresponds to the difference in the energy of the electron between the upper and lower shells.

Figure 43 - The emitted wavelength of the spectral line depends on the frequency of the electron circulation within the electron shell from which the electron exits, and the frequency of the electron in the shell that the electron is entering.

When the electron passes from one electron shell to another, these transitions are rather unambiguous both in terms of energy emitted and the emitted frequency of the EM wave. Figure 43 shows the emitted wavelengths of light at the passages between the shells of hydrogen.

Less uniform is the situation when the electrons fall in the electron shell from the surroundings at different speeds and at different angles. In such a case, the transient phenomena of electron directing are unique. Consequently, the emitting EM waves are also unique. This is the case, for example, in the Sun, where there is an ongoing eruption of electrons and their re-incidence with varied speeds and under various angles of incidence. However, this does not generate spectral lines as shown in Figure 43, but a continuous spectrum of light.

MYTH ABOUT THE SPEED OF LIGHT

Space is a complicated system. Physics is only able to partially describe it, and in certain areas the description is only empirical. We often do not have suitable measurement for a comprehensive description of a phenomenon, so hypotheses or even myths often occur in physics. For example, atoms are too small to be measured directly and completely. In researching the atom, science will continue to depend on indirect measurement in combination with thought patterns. When evaluating thought patterns, we encounter obstacles such as cognitive bias.

Cognitive bias is a sociological notion describing a person’s desire for a condition determined by an influential group of people and which is current at a certain period in time. A default understanding of a natural phenomenon is established, and any change from this understanding is perceived as loss in human mind. Anchoring is, however, a type of cognitive bias that signifies the human inclination to overly rely on the explanations provided, i.e. the anchor. When humanity or physics create an anchor, we take further decisions by moving as little as possible away from them, in order to interpret new insights around the default anchor. In physical hypotheses, there is a dangerous practice where a group of physicists declares one of several given hypotheses valid before it is substantiated by objective measurement, which makes it possible for physics to reach a dead end. For example, in ancient times, Empedocles considered that light needs a certain time for its journey, that it has a certain final speed, but Aristotle objected. At that time, it stayed at that. Today, the problem of authority is only moved to other areas. James Gleick notes that, as a result, a new science can only spring from a science which wanders off deeply into a dead end where anchoring is no longer possible. The physicist Weinberg stated in 1997: “Physicists build binoculars, accelerators and satellites, and spend hours and hours sitting at a desk and looking for meaning in the data they have accumulated.” This data can be compiled into many scientific paradigms. An individual paradigm (Big Bang, speed of light ...) has influential followers. Based on authority, it can create the impression of the ultimate truth. However, after a while, new results of measurement that interfere with the current paradigm can emerge, and science therefore is forced to create a new paradigm. This does not necessarily mean that the new paradigm is better than the previous one.

The new generic physical knowledge is born in a sociological process, where certain conditions must be met.

The first condition is that a new knowledge will be accepted by a sufficient number of people. If a certain knowledge is only recognized within a narrow circle, it can wither for a long time, without being developed. Ptolemy described the heliocentric system in the 2 century AD. Other intellectuals also mentioned it until the 16th century, but their thinking remained almost unnoticed. Nobody praised them for these findings and no one even criticized them.

When a new idea or new knowledge is born in an individual, this is subject to many obstacles when introducing it to others. The author of an idea can not present it to people with modest knowledge because they do not understand it. It also has modest possibilities for presenting the idea to professionals who are, as a rule, cognitively biased. History shows that a certain idea needs to attain additional sources and develop in narrow circles, as a rule for centuries, in order to achieve such a degree of acceptability and such a prevalence to be able to live in society as a general default knowledge.

A certain knowledge is usually obtained by a person in certain circumstances. When someone does not know a particular field of expertise, because of his/her modest knowledge, there is no chance for new discoveries. When a specialist in a particular field possesses an extensive knowledge, his/her thoughts are, as a rule, fixed to certain mental models which he/she can not escape from, so this expert has a modest possibility of new insights. For new discoveries, there is a narrow window of knowledge of an individual, where his/her knowledge is not too big but also not too poor, when he/she already has the appropriate knowledge in his/her field of expertise but is not yet trapped in mental moulds from which he/she would not be able to escape. The best option is when a person with a relatively modest knowledge sets a wider framework for understanding a certain field of expertise and then acquires the knowledge with which he/she checks the intuitive model.

In the next phase, when he/she spreads the knowledge among the appropriate number of people, as a rule, there is an outburst of emotions and a kind of struggle between the defenders and the opponents. The heliocentric system was described in 1543 by Nikolai Copernicus and caused a stormy debate. Even Einstein’s theory of relativity is causing turbulent discussions, even though at a more civilizational level.

When physics can not explain something precisely, it chooses a hypothesis, for example, that the electron is a ball with the Lorenz, i.e. the classical electron radius. After a certain time, physics, for example, declares the electron differently, as an infinitesimally small particle, as a point, of course, with the final mass of the electron. The consequence of the point with a certain mass is the infinite specific mass of the electron. Instead of premature hypotheses, it would be more appropriate to record that measurement in physics is too scarce and too inaccurate for a certain hypothesis. A more appropriate statement would be that physicists can not measure the diameter of an electron.

However, if physics already sets hypotheses, they must be subject to continuous and comprehensive verification. Often, despite the abundance of uncertainties, physicists are convinced that physics has reached its limits. The Nobel laureate Richard Feynman stated that he is happy because he lives in a period in which the basic laws of nature were discovered. But, according to him, this time has already passed. The physicist Horgan points out that individuals have predicted several times that there will be no more fundamental discoveries, for example at the end of the 19th century. He thinks that there are still big tasks ahead of science. In particular, philosophers of physics believe that there can not be an end to physical science, since its theories are always replaced by new, more detailed and better ones. The initial source of this overestimation is - in addition to the human ego trip - the substitution of reality with a physical model. Einstein and Bohr had interesting discussions on quantum mechanics, where Einstein was inclined to the notion that quantum mechanics should be understood as an incomplete description of reality. His thinking was mature, because it would be self-important to think that in the field which at least indirectly expresses so much mysticism we have discovered the ultimate truth.

The limitation of human reason is the key obstacle to understanding natural phenomena. We are able to recognize the laws of nature only in part. Our ability to comprehend these phenomena comprehensively is lesser than the ability to experience them. Evolution obviously gave priority to the latter.

In scientific literature, a certain phenomenon is described in various ways. Maxwell understood light in one way, however optics describes it in a different way, and the quantum mechanics (QED) in a different manner yet again. The question arises as to which description we should believe.

Two conditions determine which description to believe:

Results of direct measurement

Compliance of a phenomenon’s description with the results of measurement

As long as we have a modest set of measurement, fantasy allows for many possible descriptions of a certain phenomenon. All descriptions may be consistent with modest measurement. However, if we increase the number of measurement and, with different measurement, illuminate the phenomenon from many points of view, more and more interpretations are discarded, while confidence in the remaining descriptions increases.

Nature has many secrets up its sleeve which give people great pleasure in scientific research. There is no concern that nature would run out of such secrets. We should worry more about our intellectual dimension, whether our human intellect can even fully grasp and understand them, even though these natural secrets are offered to us on a silver tray. What lengths will science be able to go to in the exploration of nature, what percentage of natural phenomena will remain hidden from science for a very long time to come?

Light

We can illustrate the anchoring of physical views and certain open questions of physics with the example of light. The speed of light in vacuum was set in 1983, based on the definition of the meter, at c = 2.99792458 · 108m/s. Light is supposed to have a constant speed c regardless of the speed of the observer, both at source, anywhere on its path, and at the sink. On the basis of the notion that the speed of light is the same in all conditions, Einstein published the general theory of relativity at the beginning of the last century which stated, in a very simplified description, that a stationary observer observes a slowed pace of time for a moving observer, while shorter distances are detected in the direction of motion, both depending on his/her speed.

For example, the length of one day of the moving observer can be compared with two days as perceived by a stationary observer. It is not only time that runs slower for the moving observer, also his/her watch used to measure time is running slower. Since both the length of a day and the length of an hour, as measured by his/her watch are prolonged, his/her day will still last 24 (of his) hours. Due to a harmonized slowdown of both his/her watch and of the course of events, he/she will not detect a slower time pace on his/her watch.

For example, let’s say a motionless rocket man is 180 cm tall and 40 cm wide across the shoulders. In accordance with the special relativity theory, due to speed, the height of the rocket launcher decreases when he is turned in the direction of travel, for example by ten times, i.e. to 18 cm. He is therefore 18 cm high and 40 cm wide. When he turns transversely to the flight of the rocket, his height is restored to 180 cm and the width is reduced to only 4 cm. If he turns, his dimensions are grotesquely changing.

It is also possible to imagine an observer on another celestial body moving fast who observes me. In this case, I’m the moving observer. From his/her point of view it is me who is moving, while he/she is stationary. Will he/she also be convinced that my shape is grotesquely changing when I turn around?

There is also the question of the standard length of a meter. When the moving observer turns the meter in his/her hand in different directions, the length of the meter changes depending on whether it is turned in the direction of the observer’s movement or in the transverse direction. The meter, the length of which changes with direction, can only serve as a standard gauge if at the time of giving the measured value we also indicate where the meter was turned to at the time of measurement.

The known and established physical laws allow for different, even contradictory explanations that are difficult to explain. The above explanations are based on the speed of light which remains the same in all conditions. It is therefore sensible to also focus our attention to the understanding of the speed of light.

Radio wave

The radio wave is an EM wave which differs from light only due to its lower frequency. For easier understanding, let’s take a look at the speed of the radio signal travel, as shown in Figure 44. The EM signal travels from the radio transmitter to the traffic sign and at the same time to the moving car. The EM wave reaches the observers, one at the traffic sign, the other in the car at the moment when the car is at the road sign.

Figure 44 - The same EM signal travels from the antenna to the traffic sign and the moving car.

If we look at the drawn EM waves on the picture between the radio transmitter and the observers, one at the traffic sign and the other in the car, we can only get the impression that the number of EM waves between the transmitter and the observers is equal. The observers are situated at the same point and between them, after all, exist the same EM waves.

The distance from both observers to the transmitter is the same. Consequently, it follows that the observers perceive the same wavelength of EM wave, regardless of their different velocities. The distance between them and the transmitter is equal, and the number of EM waves is the same.

The observer in the car measures a higher frequency of the EM wave as the observer at the sign. The same wavelength of both observers and the measured different EMV wave frequencies, measured in accordance with the equation of c = f · λ, mean that the EM wave falls at a different speed to the car than to the traffic sign.

The instinctive dilemma about the speed of light requires a clear and unambiguous explanation. EM waves are described by Maxwell’s equations. Theoretical answer to the dilemma on the speed of light can therefore be offered by Maxwell’s equations.

Maxwell’s equations

A reader who is not skilled in mathematical operators, such as derivative function and ‘rot F’, can skip this chapter and proceed with the chapter ‘Light in Matter’.

For example, only rare individuals become absorbed in Maxwell’s equations. Most people are thinking on the basis of ‘myths’ instead of understanding. Among the experts, however, opinions are divided on whether Maxwell’s equations prove the same speed of light in every situation or not.

Maxwell’s equations include rarely used mathematical operators, such as Rot E, therefore these operators are explained and illustrated in simplified cases below.

Water running through the rapids has different speeds depending on the gradient of the terrain. Electric and magnetic fields are circulating in the EM wave similarly to water running over rapids.

The various distributions of the electric field intensity (E) at points in space can be understood as the inclinations of the electric field in the space through which the magnetic field runs. Higher or smaller inclinations of the electric field in the space cause different flux of the magnetic field, i.e., the various time changes of the magnetic field which can be described in the form.

Rot E describes how the electric field changes from point to point, and δB/δt tells us how fast the magnetic field changes as a consequence.

EM wave is shown in the diagram in Figure 15. Maxwell wrote the equations before the theory of relativity was discovered, and therefore the vector form of Maxwell’s equations does not contain the law of relativity. They are written in the Galilean coordinate system. Thus, in the vector form of Maxwell’s equations we do not know the concepts of relativity, such as the shrinkage of space (x’) or the dilation of time (t’).

In the vector form of Maxwell’s equations dD/dt and dB/dt are used to describe the velocity of changing the electric and magnetic fields at some point. The spatial distribution of the electric and magnetic fields, i.e., the shape of the curve in Figure 15 and the wavelength of the EM wave, are described by Rot E and Rot H.

Simplifying the equations on an example

Maxwell’s equations for illustration on a selected example can be simplified by limiting only to the EM wave that travels in the direction of the X-axis, as shown in Figure 15. In this case, we are primarily concerned with the local and temporal conditions on the X-axis of the coordinate system.

The fourth Maxwell equation is simplified by the rectification of the EM wave in the direction of the X-axis:

dE/dx + dB/dt = 0

The Rot E function is simplified into the derivative function of dE/dx. The electric field derivation along the spatial X-axis represents the gradient of the electric field curve at the observed point. The entire dE/dx function on the X-axis describes the geometric shape of the EM wave, and hence the wavelength of the EM wave. However, the EM wave time condition (frequency) is described by the dB/dt function.

The value of the dE/dx link along the wavelength (Figure 15) in the Galilean coordinate system does not depend on the speed of the observer. In the dE/dx link there is no variable or mathematical operation indicating that the observer’s velocity affects the shape and wavelength of the EM wave. In the case of the EM wave in Figure 44, both the car and the traffic sign perceive the same wavelength of the EM wave.

Things are different with the dB/dt article. The speed of the light wave observer in accordance with the Doppler effect affects the frequency of the EM wave.

The dE/dx and dB/dt articles can be illustrated on an even more representative example. The dE/dx article represents the geometric shape of a curve, similar to that of a groove on a turntable. The rotational speed of a gramophone record does not affect the geometric shape of the groove. The latter is what it is and does not depend on the speed of rotation of the record. Similarly, the speed of the observer does not affect the geometric shape (dE/dx) of the EM wave and hence the wavelength of the observed light.

Different rotational speeds of the gramophone record cause different frequencies of the gramophone needles, similar to the different speeds of the observer of light causing different values of the dB/dt link, and thereby different frequencies of light.

In the Galilean coordinate system, the vector form of Maxwell’s equations consequently determines that at a constant wavelength the frequency of light changes with the velocity of the observer. This, according to the c = f · λ equation, shows that the velocity of light at the light sink depends on the speed of the observer.

We can stand at the selected point on the X-axis and watch the EM wave. We can detect the changing E and B fields of the EM wave. Let’s decide to read the state of the electric and magnetic fields every time the EM wave is in the π/6 wave phase.

Observing the nearby surroundings of the E field of the EM wave in the π/6 phase shows the dE/dx value. Observing the near time surroundings of the B field of the EM wave shows dB/dt at this phase of the wave.

In the case of a stationary source of light, we measure what Maxwell’s equations express, i.e. dE/dx = - dB/dt.

In the case of a moving light source, dE/dx is preserved, but dB/dt changes and depends on the speed of light. In the dE/dx = - dB/dt equation, due to the influence of the observer’s velocity at the observed point, the dB/dt varies, while the dE/dx link does not change. When the observer’s speed changes in the observed phase of the EM wave, dE/dx is no longer equal to -dB/dt. At different source speeds, we need to write Rot E <> -dB/dt.

In the equation, one article can not be changed with a constant second article. The condition of equality in equation can therefore be satisfied only at a single observer speed, i.e. in the case where the light source and the observer are in the same observation system, i.e. when the light source is stationary.

Maxwell’s equations in the case of a moving source or a sink of light therefore need an upgrade that determines how the velocity of the source or the sink affects the EM wave field.

Tensor form of Maxwell’s equations

In the following, we shall upgrade the vector form of Maxwell’s equations with the laws of the theory of relativity. In the vector form of Maxwell’s equations, we replace the local x parameter with the x’ parameter in accordance with the relativistic space shrinkage. We also replace the time parameter with the t’ parameter determined by the relativistic dilation of time.

For an easier understanding, let us carry out another simplification. According to the theory of relativity, the space between two points in the case of moving away is shrinking according to the following law:

x’ = γ · (x - vt)

On the other hand, if they move nearer to each other, it expands according to the following law:

x’ = γ · (x + vt)

We simplify the equations by observing only the low observer speeds, for example, speeds that do not exceed 1 km/s, where the impact of speed on γ is less than 10-10.

The influence of velocity at γ at low speeds is many size classes smaller than that of other factors. At low speeds, the factor γ can therefore be rounded to 1, thus obtaining a simplified form of equations.

x’ = x - vt or x’ = x + vt

Relativity

The basic characteristics of relativity are shown by the example of two identical bars, each one (in the case of a standstill) measuring exactly one meter.

Figure 45 - The observer perceives the bars of equal length as having different lengths.

The upper bar in Fig. 45 is stationary while the lower one moves to the right, together with the observer located on the left side of the bar. The observer observes the length of the upper bar at the moment when the bars are aligned on the left side.

For the observer, the lower bar is stationary, therefore it remains 1 m long, while the upper bar extends from the point of view of the observer, due to the approaching of B point, to the length of x ‘= x + vt.

The distance of x is 1 m in our case, and t is the time in which light travels over a distance of 1 m, i.e., t = v / c. The observer perceives the stationary bar of the following dimension:

x’= 1 + v/c

Figure 46 - The observer perceives the upper rod either as shorter or longer, depending on where he/she is located.

In the next example, in Figure 46, at the moment of observation, the bars are aligned on the right. The observer is also situated on the right side of his/her bar. Point A on the upper meter is moving away from the observer, therefore the observer will perceive as if the length of the upper bar is smaller than one meter, i.e., the length equals x ‘= 1 - v / c.

In the third example, in Figure 47, the observer is located in the middle of the bottom bar and traveling with it.

Figure 47 - The observer only observes the shifted same lengths of the bars if he/she is located in the middle of the bar.

The distance of the observer to the points A or B is half a meter, so the observer perceives the distance to point A as (1/2 - v / 2c) and to point B as (1/2 + v / 2c).

The sum of the two distances equals ½ - v / 2c + ½ + v / 2c = 1, which shows that the moving observer perceives the same length of both bars, regardless of the speed of the lower bar and the observer on it.

Wave length

In the following, instead of two bars, we shall observe the wavelength of light observed in one case by a stationary observer and in the second case by a moving observer, as shown in Figure 48.

Figure 48 - A stationary and a moving observer measure the EM field and thus the wavelength of light with sensors.

On a stationary base, we install two EM field sensors at a distance of one wavelength of the light wave shown in Figure 48 by the d3 and d4 sensors. Similarly, we install two identical sensors, d1 and d2, to the moving observer at the same distance from each other. The sensors are rigidly connected to each other so that they can not change their mutual distance, but they can move together with the observer.

When the d1 and d3 sensors are located at the same point, they measure the same EM field at the same point. Similarly, when the d2 and d4 sensors are located at the same point, the d2 and d4 sensors also measure the same EM field at the same point.

The observer is placed in the middle between the detector d1 and d2. Consequently, the d1 and d3 sensors, by analogy of calculation of the length of the bars, are aligned with the alignment of the sensors d2 and d4, regardless of the speed of the observer. The moving observer in Figure 48 detects the same wavelength as the stationary observer, λ’ = λ, regardless of the speed of the observer’s movement.

Example of one observer

An even lesser risk in reasoning is ensured if A and B points or d1 and d2 detectors are joined into the same point. The detectors in Figure 48 can be joined as shown in Figure 49.

Figure 49 - Measuring the wavelength of light with the same detector.

Two semitranslucent mirrors are mounted on the moving trolley. An EM wave from stationary source travels to the d1 detector, then reflects back to the first semitranslucent mirror, where it is reflected again and travels to the d2 detector.

Detectors d1 and d2 are situated at the same point as the observer. The observer simultaneously observes the reflection of the beam at the d1 detector and the angle of the beam to the d2 detector. The beam length from the d1 detector to the d2 detector does not change due to the speed of the trolley, as it does not change among the detectors in Figure 48. Consequently, it can be summarized that λ ‘= λ, regardless of the speed of movement of the measuring trolley and the observer on it.

Wavelength of light does not change

The wavelength of light does not change even in the case of the vector form of Maxwell’s equations, nor in the case of an upgrade of Maxwell’s equations with the laws of relativity. The Doppler shift therefore affects the frequency of light rather than the wavelength of light.

The changing of the frequency of light with the speed of the observer or of the light source, at a constant wavelength of light, according to the c = f · λ equation means that the speed of light at the sink depends on the speed of the light source relative to the observer.

On the subject of the described cognitive experiments unlimited discussions could unfold needlessly. Needlessly, because the effect of the velocity of the light source on the wavelength of light would be easy to measure. Therefore, an unambiguous answer can be obtained by direct measurement. Namely, the effect of light source velocity on the wavelength of light at the sink has not yet been measured.

To confirm the thesis about the effect of the velocity of light source on the wavelength of light, a measurement made in 2007 can be used which was described in the article ‘S. REINHARDT; Test of relativistic time dilation with fast optical atomic clocks at different velocities’ and described in detail in Figure 61.

As a basis for measuring the speed of light, however, we need a classification of instruments that would show which instruments are sensitive to the frequency and which to the wavelength of light. However, this classification can be obtained if we look at the properties of light in matter and on the diffraction grating.

Light in matter

Light can be found in the medium where it is refracted, reflected, absorbed or diffracted on the diffraction grating.

Refraction of light

The EM wave of light is many classes larger than the molecules of matter. Within each EM wave of visible light, a large number of molecules are present. These molecules change the conductivity of electric field (dielectricity) and the conductivity of space for magnetic field (permeability).

The EM wave of light after its incident into matter, due to a change in electrical and magnetic conductivity, is no longer in optimal energy state. The electrical and magnetic forces in the EM wave ensure that the EM wave is geometrically transformed into an optimal energy state for that matter after the incident. After the incident into matter, the wavelength of light is shortened after the transient phenomenon and its speed is decreased. When light is emitted from the medium, the process of transforming the EM wave proceeds in the opposite direction, and the light regains the speed at which it previously entered the medium.

The same speed of light entering and exiting the media is shown by the characteristics of the lenses. The sharpness of the image on the telescope does not depend on the speed of light.

However, the same entry and exit velocity of light on the lens in the telescope should not be mistaken for the same speed of light in all situations. The sharp images of the telescope allow only the inference that the light velocity at the entrance equals that at the exit of the lens but does not allow for the conclusion that the light velocity at the entrance and exit from the glass is equal to the speed of light.

In case of refraction of light, matter is also observed where the refractive index is less than one. In these substances, the light velocity does not slow down, but increases above the speed of light.1 This “fast light” has been known for almost a century and has produced a varied discussion among physicists.

Reflection of the light

Each EM wave, which arrives on the parabolic mirror of a telescope, is directed by the mirror to the centre of the telescope. Images of all celestial bodies on the telescope are sharp, no matter how fast the velocity of incident light on the mirror is.

The telescope’s optics may be the same for all light rays in case the reflectance of the light is symmetrical. A symmetrical reflection of light on the telescope mirror means that the incident and reflected light speeds are the same. However, it does not mean that the incident light and the reflected light velocity are equal to the speed of light (c).

Similar to refraction of light, light reflection also includes phenomena that may surprise us. Let us direct two mutually synchronous beams of coherent light to the transversely moving surface. The beams are generated by a laser in such a way that one beam is divided into two beams which fall to the surface under different angles, as shown in Figure 50.

Figure 50 - Reflection of light from a moving plate.

The beam A is incident in the direction of the motion of the base, and the beam B is incident in the direction opposite to the motion of the base. Reflected light creates interference on the detector, which is used by the Canon’s contactless speedometer of the base.

The detector does not detect the pulsating interference of the two beams, which means the frequency of the two reflected beams on the detector is the same.

At a constant speed of the base, the detector detects a phase lag between the beams which depends on the speed of the base. The phase difference between the beams on the detector can only be due to the difference in the wavelengths of the reflected light. Different wavelengths of reflected light at the same frequency mean different velocities of reflected light.

Diffraction grate

The EM wave of light has a certain volume, as shown in Figure 16. Even the slit has a certain size. Let us choose a gap that is in the size class of the EM waves of light and direct the light into the slit. The EM wave is too large to cross the slit unobstructed. It hits the edge of the slit which deflects the shape of its electric and magnetic fields. After the passing through the slit, the EM wave restores the EM field to a form defined by Maxwell’s equations.

The Huygens–Fresnel principle states that every point on a wavefront is itself the source of spherical wavelets that continue the path at the same speed as the original wave. What happens if the light is incident to the slit at a velocity not equal to the speed of light? Does light in this case follow the Huygens–Fresnel principle and continues its path at the same velocity which is different than the speed of light? Or does the slit behave as a source of light that emits light with the speed of light. This question would be meaningless if there were no measurement that would give an unambiguous answer to this question. Let us say that the light from a moving light source, for example from a turbulent corona of the Sun, enters the slit. The velocity of this light, due to the turbulence of the solar corona, is hypothetically not necessarily the same as the speed of light. The measurement should indicate whether light leaves the slit at the velocity with which it entered the slit, of if its velocity is adapted to the speed of light, as shown in Figure 51.

Figure 51 - Light adapts its velocity at the slit to c when it enters the slit at a speed that is different from c.

The diffraction of light on the diffraction grating is shown in Figure 52. For this example, a diffraction grating that lets light through is interesting. Reflective diffraction gratings are not interesting in this case.

Figure 52 - Diffraction of light on the diffraction grating.

The light in Figure 52 creates a white line in the middle after the passage of the diffraction grating. This is the zero-order-mode diffraction which contains the light of all the wavelengths. On the sides, there is a colour spectrum of diffraction of the first positive order, whereby the diffraction of light depends on the wavelength of light.

Let us say light falls to the diffraction grating at an angle. The incident wavefront of the light beam is shown by the AC line in Figure 53, and the BD front line shows the leaving light after the passage of the diffraction grating.

In the laboratory conditions, the beam of the zero-order-mode diffraction is not refracted. The linear path of the beam after the passage of the diffraction grating is the consequence of the same number of EM waves of the same wavelength, both in the AB relation and in the CD relation.

Figure 53 - Upon passing the diffraction grating, the light velocity is adapted to the speed of light, whilst the beam of white light turns its direction.

In the continuation, the light from a turbulent light source, for example from the corona of the Sun or from the accelerator in Figure 60, i.e. the light of hypothetically different velocities, is directed to the diffraction grating. If, upon the passing through the diffraction grating, the light’s velocity is adapted to the speed of light, the beam of white light of the zero-order-mode diffraction changes its direction. The beam is refracted.

Upon the passing through the diffraction grating, the light’s velocity can be changed, and thus also its wavelength, as shown in Figure 51. This, in turn, causes the AB distance in Fig. 53 at the same number of wavelengths not to be equal to the CD distance, which affects the white light diffraction.

The sources of light in the solar corona have varied speeds, which can create different EM wave diffractions on the diffraction grating. The consequence of the different diffraction angles of the light on the diffraction grating is the increased scattering of white spot light.

The hypothesis on the influence of the light source velocity on the speed of light can therefore be confirmed or refuted by measurement. If the influence of the light source velocity on the zero-order-mode diffraction of light is observed on the diffraction grating, it can only be due to the different velocities of the incident light on the diffraction grating. Let us compare the visibility of a white spot of light in laboratory conditions with the recognition or scattering of the white spot created by light from the Sun, i.e. a source of light with great turbulences.

The properties of the diffraction grating therefore give the possibility to measure light’s velocity from the moving light source. A change in the length of light on the diffraction grating can be measured on the diffraction grating in Figure 51. The frequency of light is the same in front and behind the diffraction grating. From the change in the wavelength and frequency, however, according to the equation c = f · λ, the change in the light velocity on the diffraction grating and, consequently, the light velocity in front of the diffraction grating can be calculated.

The method of measurement is described in detail in article2, ‘The Impact of the Light Source Movement on the EM Properties of Light’, which I published at the WSEAS Conference in Venice in 2011, while the short summary3 of the measurement method is shown and described in Figure 63 of this essay.

Measurement of the speed of light

The road to the unveiling of physical laws is often long and intertwined, with many surprises and side ways. This also applies to the detection of the speed of light.

Science has the least difficulty in measuring the speed of light that comes from a stationary source of light, i.e., in situations where the light source and the observer are in the same observation system.

The history of measuring the speed of light was described by Philip Gibbs in 1997 in the article ‘How is the Speed of Light Measured?’4 The descriptions of the measurement are understandable, therefore, I shall only mention them here. Measurement shows that in vacuum light always leaves the light source at a speed of 2.99792 108 m/s. This speed is denoted by the constant c and is called the speed of light.

The measurement mentioned in the article was carried out in situations where the origin and the sink of light remain stationary in the relationship with each other and when the speed of light is not affected by a magnetic field or gravity. However, the velocity of the source of light, the magnetic field and the gravitational field should not be underestimated, as shown in the examples below.

Impact of magnetic field on the speed of light

Sunspots are the result of strong magnetic fields. A magnetic field diverts the rays of the Sun’s radiation in different directions, thereby reducing the visible brightness of the Sun at the site of strong magnetism.

At the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in Ljubljana, we measured the influence of magnetic field on the properties of light based on optical interferometers. In certain cases of measurement we found similar measurement results in scientific literature, which made it easier for us to implement the measurement. We analysed various interpretations of the published results of measurement in scientific articles and on the basis of our own measurement we tried to understand the properties of light.

Types of optical interferometers

The Sagnac interferometer is suitable for measuring the speed of light. We know two types of Sagnac interferometers. Some operate on the basis of reflection of light from mirrors (wireless version), the other on the basis of optical fibres and optocouplers (fibre version).

The Sagnac interferometer shown in Figure 54 operates on the basis of an optocoupler and a single-line optical fibre.

Figure 54 - Measurement of the effect of magnetic field on the speed of light with the Sagnac interferometer.

The optocoupler divides the laser beam into two beams and sends them in opposite directions into the optical fibre reel. When the beams traverse the optical fibre in the reel, each one in different direction, the same optocoupler joins them and directs them toward the detector. The detector measures the interference of both beams.

For the purpose of measuring the impact of the magnetic field on the speed of light in the optical fibre, a 30 cm long coil was used in which we created a magnetic field with a magnetic density of 20 mT, and impulsively up to 200 mT for a period of 15 ms. This magnetic field impacts the light beams in the optical fibre of Sagnac interferometer.

We used the laser light source of the HP8168F type with the wavelength of 1550 nm. The light beam at the exit from the interferometer was measured with the spectral analyser of the AQ6317 type.

Whenever an EM wave of light enters a magnetic field there is an interaction between the electric and magnetic fields of the light wave and the external magnetic field. This phenomenon is also used for the functioning of industrial meters.

Measurement of electrical current in the power line

To measure the electric current in the power line, the Mach-Zehnder interferometer was used so that the optical fibre in which the beam travelled was wound around the electrical conductor. In this way, the light beam was led through the magnetic field generated by the current in the power line. The measurement was described in the article titled ‘Optical Current Sensors for High Power’5 and is shown in Figure 55.

Figure 55 - Measurement of the effect of the magnetic field on the speed of light with the Mach-Zehnder interferometer.

The measurement showed different times of the beam crossing through the optical fibre, depending on the magnetic field density generated by the electric current of the power line. A certain part of scientific literature states that the different times of the beam crossing through the optical fibre can be the result of a change in the length of the optical fibre due to the magnetic field effect (magnetostriction).

Evaluation of the cause of the time lag

The answer to the question of the effect of the magnetic field on the time of the beam crossing through the optical fibre is provided by the measurement described in the patent ‘Sensing unit for Sagnac optical fibre current sensor’6. Measurement allows the measuring of the electric current in the power line so that the magnetic field generated by the electric current affects the time delay of both beams in the optic fibre of Sagnac interferometer. The measurement method is shown in Figure 56.

Figure 56 - Measurement of current (the effect of the magnetic field on the speed of light) with Sagnac interferometer

Laser directs light to optocoupler which divides it7 in both directions of the optical fibre. The beams return with different delays depending on the electrical current in the optocoupler and, consequently, the magnetic field generated by this current.

The laser emits impulses of 100 ns, and on the detector the time delay of the return of the pulses of both beams is measured directly in nanoseconds. We measure the time delay between the beams, and not the interference. The measured delay is linearly proportional to the current and the magnetic density in which the optical fibre is located.

The measured delay between the beams can not be attributed to magnetostriction. The magnetic field equally impacts the length of the optical fibre for both beams in both directions. For the same factor, the magnetostriction would change the length of the optical fibre for both beams and hence the length of their optical paths.

The delay between the beams can only arise due to differences in the light velocities, whereby the magnetic field differently impacts the speed of light in both beams, depending on whether a light beam travels in the direction of the magnetic field or in the direction opposite to it.

Impact of the magnetic field on the EM wave

Magnetic field impacts electric current with a certain force. When light appears in a magnetic field, the magnetic field acts with a certain force on the moving current of the EM wave of light. The force of the magnetic field thus transforms (distorts) the EM wave. The distorted shape of the EM wave in turn impacts the velocity of movement of the EM wave.

In the Sagnac interferometer, one beam travels in the direction of an external magnetic field and the other beam moves in the direction opposite to the external magnetic field. Different velocities of light in one and the other direction of the Sagnac interferometer show that the deformation of the EM wave of light in the case when light travels in the direction of the external magnetic field differs from the deformation of the EM wave when light travels in the direction opposite to the EM wave.

The deformation of the EM wave of light, and thus the different light velocities under the impact of the external magnetic field, is not necessarily related to the motion of the beam in substance. Consequently, the change in the light velocity in the external magnetic field can hypothetically also be expected in a vacuum.

Speed of light in a gravitational field

The gravitational redshift of the spectral lines described in scientific literature stands for the impact of the gravitational field on the change in the wavelength of light.

Figure 57 - Impact of gravity on the speed of light.

If point B in Fig. 57 is a zone of greater gravity, and point A a zone of lower gravity, the literature8 states that light in point A has a wavelength greater than in point B.

How about the frequency? The frequency of transitions of EM waves through points A and B can be measured by measuring the time when the frequency of the transitions of EM waves through the points can not be directly compared. When the frequency of transitions of EM waves can be compared directly, without the help of a watch, the measurement of time is superfluous and even disturbing.

Methods of measuring time, measuring instruments and time units (seconds) are the result of human creation, so they can be shaped and transformed in many ways, which enables us to measure anything. Thus, it is more reliable to focus on directly monitoring the frequency of events.

In the case of observing the frequency of the EM wave transition through points A and B, these events can be monitored directly. Light in points A and B can be observed simultaneously by an observer in Fig. 57. Without the use of a watch, he/she can notice that EM waves traverse point A synchronously with waves in point B. If more EM waves would arrive in the space between points A and B, the question would arise of continuous increase in the number of EM waves at the AB distance. The observer, based on the synchronous transition of EM waves through points A and B, identifies the same frequency of EM waves both in points A and B.

The speed of light is determined by the equation of c = f · λ, where c is the speed of light, f is its frequency and λ is the wavelength. Since scientific literature states that change in the gravitational field in the path of light changes the wavelength of light, but does not change the frequency of light, gravity affects the speed of light.

Impact of radial acceleration on the speed of light

Sagnac interferometer enables the measurement of the influence of radial acceleration on the speed of light. The optical fibre reel in Fig. 54 rotates. One of the beams travels in the direction of rotation of the optical fibre, while the other beam extends in the opposite direction. The delay between both beams increases linearly with the length of the fibre, the diameter of the optical fibre reel and the angular speed of the reel rotation9 Δt = L · D · ω/c2.

The interferential signal at the output of the interferometer does not flash at a constant angular speed. This means the same frequency of the beams on the detector.

In accordance with the STR, the external static observer perceives the same speeds of both beams. During the travel of the beams through the optical fibre, the detector moves. The expected delay between the beams due to the displacement of the detector at the same beam velocity to an external observer, due to the lower light velocity in glass, equals10 Δt = L · D · ω · n2 / c2 and not L · D · ω/c2, as measured.

The measured time delay of the beams in the fibre, Δt = L· D · ω/c2, could be the result of the lightspeed of the beam (c), and not the velocity of beams in the optical fibre, reduced by the refractive index of the glass(c/n).

To clarify the dilemma, we need to select an appropriate observation system. Under the correct understanding of the phenomenon, any system of observation must give the same understanding of the phenomenon. The differences between the observation systems are that some of the systems of observation describe the phenomenon more clearly and comprehensively, while other systems even allow misinterpretation of the phenomenon due to lesser transparency.

The observer is placed in the axis of the rotating interferometer so that the observer rotates together with the interferometer. In this observation system, the laser source, the detector and the optical fibre stand still; even in the case of rotation of the interferometer. Despite the quiescence, the observer detects time lag between the beams.

Source of delay between the beams

The beam in the reel travels along a circumference. The radial acceleration acts on the beams as a result of the speed of light in the curved optocoupler. The radial acceleration exerts effect on individual beams in the opposite directions. This acceleration must be added the acceleration to the beam due to the rotation of the interferometer, which is the same for both beams.

The acceleration due to the rotation of the interferometer is consequently added to the acceleration of the first beam and subtracted from the acceleration of the second beam. Consequently, the radial acceleration varies between the light beams in the optical fibre.

Different radial acceleration can be the answer to the question of the origin of the delay between the rays. The measurement therefore shows that the radial acceleration acting on the light beams in the optical fibre affects the light velocity in the optical fibre.

Speed of light reflected from a moving surface

The design of the Sagnac interferometer based on rotating mirrors is shown in Figure 58. The interferometer consists of a laser light (L), a semitranslucent mirror (B) which divides the beam into two directions towards the mirrors (M) and a detector (P) intercepting the beam at the end.

The interferometer is rotating. The beams repel successively from the mirrors (M) so that one beam travels between the mirrors in the direction of rotation of the interferometer, while the other beam is leading in the direction opposite to the rotation of the interferometer. At the end, the semitranslucent mirror merges both beams and directs them in one beam towards the detector (P).

Figure 58 - Sagnac interferometer based on rotating mirrors

In case of a stationary interferometer, the beams reach the detector simultaneously. However, if the interferometer is rotating, the beams arrive to the detector with a delay. The article in Wikipedia, titled ‘Sagnac effect’,11 describes that the beams of the interferometer shown in Figure 58 reach the detector with a delay of Δt = 4 · S · ω/c2. S is the surface of the area between the mirrors and ω is the angular velocity of the interferometer rotation.

To measure the delay between beams, we can use the method of measurement described in the article ‘THE POLARIZATION SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER FOR GRAVITATIONAL WAVE DETECTION’12. A laser emits a signal in the form of pulses. On the detector, we measure the time in which an individual pulse arrives on the detector through the first and the second beam. The time difference is measured directly in time units such as nanoseconds.

Hypotheses on the origin of delay between the beams

Scientific literature mistakenly states that the delay between the beams is caused by the moving of one mirror closer to one beam and the moving of the other mirror away from the second beam.

Firstly, this interpretation is contrary to the STR. The moving of the beam closer to the mirror can be understood only in the way that the speeds of the beams towards the mirrors are not equal to the speed of light. According to the STR, the light velocity is always the same with respect to the mirror, i.e., the speed of light, which excludes the possibility of approaching or distancing the mirror to and from the beam.

Secondly, from a geometrical point of view, the mirrors are moving transversely to the beam. The moving of the mirror closer to the beam should be reflected in the different frequencies of each of the two beams on the detector, however that is not detected in the measurement. The equality of the frequencies is indicated by the interference beam on the detector that does not flash at a constant angular velocity of the interferometer. Therefore, the interference of beams does not indicate the moving of the beam closer to the mirror.

Time of travel of individual beams

For Canon speedometer, described in Figure 60, it is shown how the transverse velocity of the base affects the wavelength of reflected light and not its frequency. In the case of the Sagnac interferometer described, we have a similar example of the reflection of light from transversely moving mirrors as in the case of the Canon speedometer of the base.

With the interferometer shown in Figure 58, the detector (P) is positioned as far away from the semitranslucent mirror (B) as possible. Thereby, the authors of the measurement increased the sensitivity of the interferometer. The greater time interval between the beams at a greater distance of the detector from the semitranslucent mirror implies different speeds of beams at the exit from the semitranslucent mirror of the interferometer to the detector, as shown in Figure 59.

Figure 59 - Different time interval between beams at different distances means different speeds of beams.

In Figure 59, the delay between the beams in point A is smaller than the delay at a more distant point B. The delay between the beams is even greater in point C. This is only possible at different speeds of the beams exiting the interferometer.

The delay between the beams of the interferometer is first measured near the semitranslucent mirror, and in the second case at a greater distance from the mirror. Comparison of the results of the measurement of the delay between the beams, according to Figure 59, shows whether both velocities of light at the exit from the interferometer are the same or not.

Failed attempts to measure the speed of light

Light makes it possible to observe the environment, but it conceals from us its own properties. There were some unsuccessful attempts to measure the speed of light in circumstances in which light comes from a moving source of light, gravity or a magnetic field.

Michelson interferometer

Whether ether affects the speed of light can be measured with Michelson interferometer. Measurement was carried out in 1877 by Michelson and Morley13 and showed that ether does not exist and, consequently, can not influence the speed of light.

In the initial enthusiasm, the authors wrote in their scientific articles in an incautious and euphoric manner that on the basis of Michelson interferometer the same speed of light was measured in all conditions.

On the basis of Michelson interferometer, the speed of light that comes from a moving light source has never been measured. Physicists even doubt that this interferometer would detect a change in the incident light velocity. Modern articles (in Wikipedia14 and elsewhere) therefore do not state that the Michelson-Morley interferometer could detect hypothetically different light velocities from a moving source.

Unfounded claims from a hundred years ago have even discouraged physicists from trying to objectively measure the speed of light from a moving source of light.

Measurement of light from an accelerator

In November 2011, in Moscow15, scientists tried to measure the speed of light radiated by cyclotron, as shown in Figure 60. Scientific literature refers to it as a measurement of the speed of light from a moving light source.

Figure 60 - Failed measurement of the speed of light from a cyclotron

The result of the measurement showed that the light exits the accelerator with lightspeed. In cyclotron, there are fast moving electrons that do not produce light themselves. There are also magnets that are static in relation to the light sink and their static magnetic fields.

When an electron enters the magnetic field, it creates turbulence in the magnetic field.

After the passage of the electron, the disrupted magnetic field calms down. However, in some cases, these magnetic turbulences create an EM wave, depending on the way the magnetic field is excited.

A moving electron creates turbulence in a magnetic field, but the electron velocity does not affect the speed of the resulting EM light wave. The speed of the EM wave is determined by the magnetic field. The speed of light from the stationary magnetic field of the cyclotron does not depend on the velocity of the electrons. The measurement described above therefore does not measure the speed of light from a moving source.

Measurement of the speed of light in an accelerator

The above methodological error was corrected in the measurement of the speed of light that was carried out in 2007 and is described in the article titled ‘S. REINHARDT; Test of relativistic time dilation with fast optical atomic clocks at different velocities’.

In the accelerator tube in Fig. 61, a lithium ion is traveling at a speed of 0.03 c in the first case, and in the second case at a speed of 0.064 c. Based on the fluorescence, the ion emitted light once in the direction of the Li ion motion and once in the direction opposite to the motion of the Li ion.

Figure 61 - Another failed measurement of the speed of light from a cyclotron

The laser beams in the accelerator tube were emitted in the direction of the motion of the ion. They measured the laser beam interference with light emitted by the Li ion. This was used to measure the difference between the frequencies of the laser beam and the light emitted from the Li ion.

Which of the beams, the laser beam or the beam from the Li ion, had a higher or lower frequency was determined on a subjective basis of the result expected.

The measurement did not include an objective method for measuring the frequency. On the other hand, the article does not even list the measured frequencies individually. An inconsistent method of measurement and the absence of indication of key measurement results does not allow this measurement to be understood as scientific and well-founded.

Wavelength measurement

The meter in Figure 61 enables the measurement of the wavelength of light from the Li ion using a spectrum analyser. The published article does not show if the authors of the measurement measured the wavelength of light from the Li ion, although it is technologically easy to measure, easier than measuring the frequency.

The light emitted by a moving light source changes only its frequency rather than its wavelength, as explained in Figure 51. The spectral analyser is not expected to detect changes in the wavelength in light from the Li ion regardless of the speed of the ion. Perhaps the authors of the measurement abandoned the wavelength measurement precisely because they expected different results.

GPS and decay time of mions, ...

A well-known example of a general and false ‘proving’ of the speed of light which remains the same in all situations is the view that the operation of the global positioning system (GPS) is conditioned by the consideration of the mechanisms of the special theory of relativity. There are articles that claim that GPS would not work without considering the laws of the theory of special relativity.

GPS receivers are located all over the Earth and, due to the circling of the GPS satellites, a GPS receiver either approaches a satellite when the receiver is in front of the satellite or moves away from the satellite when the satellite passes the GPS receiver. The satellite has a different speed to every GPS receiver on Earth. The diversity and constant change in the mutual speed between a satellite and a GPS receiver does not allow the frequency of the signal on a satellite to be adjusted to a single GPS receiver. The speed of a satellite circling around the Earth does not matter for special relativity.

The clocks on GPS satellites need to be fully harmonized. For this purpose, clocks on satellites are constantly mutually harmonized. They are also coordinated with clocks on Earth. The cause of deviations of a clock on a satellite may be the changes in temperature, aging of elements inside the clock and other disturbances. Clocks are constantly harmonised with each other in order for their times to match. In addition, the statistical monitoring of the deviation of each clock has a backward effect on the speed of their functioning. The mechanisms of the clocks do not require further coordination due to the impact of the theory of special relativity. On the other hand, due to the constantly changing speed between a receiver and a satellite, such coordination is not even theoretically possible.

As a general proof of the validity of the STR, the half-life of mions is also mentioned. Mions are formed on Earth upon the decay of the charged pions in the atmosphere under the influence of cosmic rays. The lifetime of dormant mions is 2.2 ms.

Frisch and Smith measured the number of mions at two heights (at the top of a mountain and by the sea) between which there was a 1,900 m difference in altitude. It turned out that they measured more mions by the sea as expected on the basis of their lifetime. For example, when mions are moving at a speed close to the lightspeed, they only travel 660 m during the period of decay. They assumed that a greater number of mions by the sea was detected due to longer lifespan due to STR and high velocities of mions.

Mions can be formed at different heights, and the measured result is more likely due to the ignorance of the distribution of the formation of mions in different layers of the atmosphere than due to the validity of the STR.

With an unclear starting point, it is possible to create many speculative stories about the emergence and disintegration of mions. Such starting points, which offer a multitude of possible explanations, are not suitable for the demonstration of STR and, thereby, also not appropriate for proving the speed of light which would be the same under every condition.

Methods for measuring the speed of light

Worldwide, hundreds of forums advocate speed of light which is the same in all situations. No other scientific discipline is so much under attack and so often called into question. This situation is the fault of the discipline itself, since the speed of light that comes from space is not credibly measured, although there are technological possibilities for such measurement.

The speed of light can be measured, for example, on the basis of a separate and independent measurement of the frequency and the wavelength of light.

Figure 62 - The speed of light can be measured by separately measuring its frequency and wavelength.

The frequency and wavelength of light from the same source can be measured separately by measuring instruments, one of which is sensitive to the frequency of light, and the other to the wavelength of light.

Fabry-Pérot interferometer

Fabry-Pérot interferometer works according to the principle of multiple reflections of light between two semitranslucent mirrors. There are several parallel rays at the exit. When these rays are in phase, they are strengthened due to interference. The interference depends on the distance between the plates and on the wavelength of light, but it does not depend on the frequency of light. The measured deviation at the FPI interferometer is a function of the wavelength of light f (λ). Therefore, with the FPI interferometer, the wavelength of light is autonomously measured.

Diffraction grating

A diffraction grating is sensitive to both the light frequency and the wavelength of light, as illustrated in Figure 53. The parallel and simultaneous measurement of the observed light with the FPI interferometer and the diffraction grating allows for separate measurement of the frequency and the wavelength of light.

Measurement of the speed of light from the comet Hale-Bopp

The authors of the measurement of light in scientific literature were often close to the discovery of the speed of light from a moving light source. They would only have to describe and publish their measurement results, but they have failed to do so every time. So far, we do not have a credible article on measuring the speed of light from a moving light source.

In March 1997, at the University of Wisconsin16 the measurement of the velocity of the comet Hale-Bopp was performed using the FPI interferometer. They measured the spectral line of the comet head with the wavelength of 6300.304 A. The result of the measurement is shown in Figure 63. The horizontal axis above the diagram shows the wavelength. The vertical axis represents the measured brightness of light at the selected wavelength.

The measurement result (the right top of the curve) shows that only a small part of light changes its wavelength due to the velocity of the comet. Rayleigh scattering was mentioned as the reason for this. On the way through the atmosphere light from the comet supposedly hits the particulate matter which absorbs it and immediately thereafter transmits it with a different wavelength17. This absorption and re-emission of light in the atmosphere is supposed to return to the light the shift of the spectral line of a static source of light instead of the shift that would be expected according to the Doppler effect.

If the same spectral line from the comet is measured using a diffraction grating meter, the meter shows the expected shift of the spectral line without Rayleigh scattering. The result of the measurement is added in Figure 63 and shown in the left curve.

Figure 63 - The speed of the light source does not affect the wavelength of light at the sink. However, it affects the frequency of light.

The diffraction grating spectrometer shows the comet velocity in the class of a few tenths of km/s18 without Rayleigh scattering. It shows the speed which can also be estimated on the basis of optical observation of the comet’s path.

When the same light is measured by an FPI interferometer oriented towards the comet, it does not show the expected shift of the spectral line19, however it is shown by the diffraction grating.

Measurement of the spectral line with an FPI interferometer shows the wavelength of light. However, non-detecting the shift of the spectral line indicates that the velocity of the light source does not affect the wavelength of light.

A spectrometer based on the diffraction grating detects the spectral line shift according to Doppler effect. Consequently, the measurement result based on the diffraction grating can be attributed to the change in the frequency of light from the comet.

The properties of light from the comet Hale-Bopp were sufficiently measured so that the authors of the measurement could summarize the measurement results in the assertion: Measurement of light from a comet with an FPI interferometer shows that the speed of illuminant does not affect the wavelength of the measured light. Measurement of the same light using a diffraction grating shows that the speed of illuminant impacts the frequency of light according to Doppler effect.

Changing the light frequency if the wavelength remains the same means that the velocity of the light source affects the speed of light at the sink in accordance with the equation c = f · λ.

The comet is suitable for measuring the speed of light, because we know the speed of the light source and there are no turbulences. The FPI interferometer measures the wavelength. The frequency of the same light is measured on the basis of the diffraction grating.

Importance of understanding the speed of light

Understanding the speed of light can facilitate industrial development in the field of measuring devices. Even more important however is the correct understanding of the speed of light for the understanding of the universe.

Speed of the solar corona

The measurement of the velocity of celestial bodies has in the past brought a number of surprises, arising from misconceptions about the speed of light. Here, we can mention the measurement of the speed of the solar corona20 carried out in the previous century in India, Russia, USA, Japan, ... Many articles explain that the solar corona is very calm, without turbulences, which is not true. In the solar corona, there are constant turbulences of plasma at a speed of several tenths of km/s, and in the case of solar flares up to 1,000 km/s.

The speed of the solar corona was measured based on the measurement of spectral lines with FPI interferometers which measures the wavelength of the spectral line, however the latter does not change with the speed of the corona. The expected changes in the wavelength of the spectral line were not detected in the measurement. This was mistakenly interpreted as a dormant solar corona.

Dark energy

A supernova explosion produces light that disappears within a few weeks or months. The redshift of the spectral line of light from a supernova increases. The continuous increase in the redshift of the spectral lines of light from a supernova is explained in scientific literature as continuing acceleration of the supernova. There was supposed to be an unknown source which is supposed to continuously accelerate a supernova. Physicists call it dark energy, although they do not know what it is supposed to be.

The scientific literature states that all supernovae are accelerating away from Earth. Since Earth is not privileged in the universe, we can conclude that this image of supernovae acceleration is also perceived by all the other observers, of course, each one in the direction away from him/her, given the random location of the observer in the universe.

Does a supernova accelerate, if every observer perceives it as accelerating away from him/her? We should allow for the possibility that the acceleration of a supernova is only apparent.

Because of the velocity of plasma produced by the supernova at the time of explosion, light moves with the speed of light in relation to the plasma particles from which it is emitted. Regarding an observer on Earth, it moves faster or slower than the speed of light, depending on the direction and speed of the plasma particle that emitted the observed light. Light, viewed from the sink, is moving at the speed of light, modified by the velocity of the light source.

Figure 64 - Dark energy will be fully explained when the light velocity from a moving source will be measured.

Light coming from a supernova can have a speed of 1.01 c when the plasma particle that emits light is propelled, due to the explosion, towards the observer on Earth at a velocity of 0.01 c. When a particle of exploding plasma flies away from Earth at a velocity of 0.01 c, the light will travel towards the observer on Earth at a speed of 0.99 c.

We obtain the image of a supernova gradually. If a momentary explosion occurs on a supernova which is millions of light years away from Earth, we would potentially not perceive it as a momentary phenomenon on Earth due to different velocities of light. The more the supernova is distant, the more a light phenomenon is prolonged on the way to the observer due to different light velocities.

The longer duration of an explosion of a supernova is observed due to the different velocity of light beams from the supernova on the way to Earth, and not because of the duration of the explosion itself. Even if the explosion of the supernova occurs momentarily, it can be observed for weeks, months or even years because of the varying light velocities on Earth.

First, light comes to Earth with a redshift of frequency, later with a violet shift of frequency of the spectral lines. Changing of the frequency shift is therefore not a consequence of the supernova acceleration, but the consequence of the gradual incidence of light to Earth from plasma particles with different speeds.

In such understanding of a supernova there is no need for the idea of dark energy. The concept of dark energy was the result of an erroneous understanding of the speed of light.

TRANSIENT PHENOMENA OF EM WAVES

In scientific literature, EM phenomena are usually described in situations where an EM wave travels in vacuum or in a homogeneous substance. However, when the EM wave encounters an obstacle, the latter distorts it and the EM wave no longer has the shape shown in Figure 16. At the obstacle, the EM wave is either refracted or absorbed or distorted in another way.

These distortions are varied, difficult to understand and mathematically indescribable. Let us therefore try to explain the distortion of an EM wave on a simple and representative example where the EM wave is neither refracted nor absorbed, but merely distorted, as explained in Figure 65.

The figure shows the path of the EM wave through a slit in the glass. At the entrance into the slit, the EM wave is in the form of a cylinder, as shown in Figure 16, i.e. the shape of cylinder A in Figure 65. The phenomenon presented is comparable to Young’s experiment with finite slits. The wave in the picture travels from left to right.

Figure 65 - The path of an EM wave through a slit in the glass

If the EM wave is narrower than the width of the slit, it does not hit the glass at the transition of the slit. In this case, it passes through the slit unhindered and without distortion, as shown by Young’s experiment with finite slits. If the slit is narrower than the EM wave, however, a part of the wave travels through the air in the slit, and the other part travels through the glass, as shown in Figure 65.

Figure 27 shows the forces forming an EM wave. An EM wave can be represented as an elastic formation. If an external disorder is acting on the EM wave the latter is distorted. But after the transient phenomenon the internal forces return the EM wave back to its basic form.

The various speeds of the EM wave traveling in glass and air represent an external disorder and curve the shape of the EM wave. The part of the EM field that travels through the air slit wants to travel faster than the part of the same wave that travels through the glass. The same wave therefore has a tendency to travel at two different speeds. External circumstances create forces acting on the EM wave. Internal forces connect the EM wave together and try to keep it in the form of a cylinder. The forces within the EM wave are strong enough in this case to prevent the EM wave from decaying. After the curving, these forces try to correct its distorted form back into the basic form.

After the transient phenomenon, the EM wave returns to the optimum shape as shown in examples C and D in Figure 65. As a whole, the EM wave in the slit travels at the same speed through the air and through the glass. Its speed is lower than the speed of light in the air and greater than the speed of light in the glass.

When the EM wave exits the slit, its speed increases at the transition from the glass and the EM wave is curved again, but this time in the other direction, as shown in Example E in Figure 65. This curvature is also unbent after the transient phenomenon, as shown in Examples F and G.

The frequency of an EM wave oscillation does not depend on the medium. The EM wave oscillates with the same frequency both in the air and in the glass. In Fig. 65, we see intense variation in the wavelengths of the EM wave. Various wavelengths at the same frequency consequently mean various changes of the speed of the EM wave (light) in the slit. The velocity of the EM wave in such cases varies from point to point.

Such a changing of the velocity of an EM wave (light) creates doubts about the validity of Maxwell’s equations in the conditions when the EM wave travels through a slit. The inclination of the E field (Rot E) of Maxwell’s equations causes the magnetic field change rate (dB/dt) and vice versa. Even in case of distortion, fields E and B affect one another in the same way.

In the case of an EM wave in vacuum, the E and B fields draw sine curves. In the event of disturbances, the shape of the EM wave is distorted, however this distortion of the EM wave is still described by Maxwell’s relations between the values E and B.

There is another question. In the case of a deviation of the speed of light in the slit from the constant c, the question arises of the validity of the equation of the speed of light arising from dielectricity ε and magnetic permeability μ.

The equation that determines the speed of light in an empty space according to a light source is derived from forces acting within an EM wave and can be written in the following form:

If in certain circumstances a part of the EM wave travels through the glass and part through the air, its shape is distorted in a unique fashion so that the speed of motion is influenced by both the dielectricity of the glass and the dielectricity of the air, ε as ε0, and by both forms of permeability (μ and μ0). Both parameters together determine the speed of the EM wave. The speed of the EM wave depends on what part of the wave travels through the air and what part of the wave travels through the glass.

The above equation obtains a new form. The wave is still a connected whole, nevertheless, the shape of the EM wave is affected by the permeability and dielectricity of glass and air.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Franc Rozman graduated in 1973 at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana. After finishing his studies, he worked at the Research and Development Department in Iskratel where he was the leading software solutions planner. He published several articles on original solutions, including patents. He developed software based on artificial intelligence for learning languages. In the meantime, he deepened his knowledge on the laws of physics in conjunction with philosophy. He has published several books related to this topic. Since 2010, he has been an independent researcher in physics.

REFERENCES

1 Daniel J. Gauthier, Duke University, and Robert W. Boyd, University of Rochester Fast Light, Slow Light and Optical Precursors: What Does It All Mean?

2 http://www.frozman.si/pdf/WSEAS.pdf.

3 http://www.frozman.si/pdf/The_properties_of_light.pdf.

4 Philip Gibbs: ‘How is the speed of light measured?‘ (1997).

5 Optical Current Sensors for High Power http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/3/602/pdf.

6 Sensing unit for Sagnac optical fibre current sensor http://www.google.com/patents/EP2245426B1?cl=en.

7 The optocoupler divides the light in three directions so that it can measure the current in the entire current range. For our understanding, it is sufficient to monitor the beam splitting in both directions of the Sagnac interferometer.

8 8 Wikipedia; Gravitational redshift.

9 Basac Secmen, SIMULATION ON INTERFEROMETRIC FIBRE OPTIC GYROSCOPE WITH AMPLIFIED OPTICAL FEEDBACK, September 2013, http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/1253657/index.pdf.

10 The circumferential speed of the interferometer equals r · ω, and the total circumferential speed of the two beams equals D · ω. The beam in the fibre travels L · n/c seconds. The fibre is therefore supposedly extended for the circumferential speed of the interferometer times the time of the beam travel in the fibre, which equals L · D · ω · n/c meters. If the extension of the fibre is divided by the speed of light in the glass, the delay equation is obtained, Δt = L · D · ω/c2 (L- optical fibre length, D- diameter of the optical disc, ω- angular speed of the reel’s rotation, n- refractive index of the glass).

11 Sagnac effect - Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagnac_effect

12 Peter T. Beyersdorf, THE POLARIZATION SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER FOR GRAVITATIONAL WAVE DETECTION, January 2001. http://nlo.stanford.edu/system/files/dissertations/peter_beyersdorf_thesis_january_2001.pdf.

13 Jose A. Fretre: ‘Experiment Of Michelson-Morley And The Original Formula‘.

14 ’Michelson–Morley Experiment‘; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experiment.

15 (Measuring speed of the light emitted by an ultrarelativistic source - E. B. Aleksandrov, P. A. Aleksandrov, V. 1 Daniel J. Gauthier, Duke University, and Robert W. Boyd, University of Rochester, Fast Light, Slow Light and Optical Precursors: What Does It All Mean?

16 Department of astronomy – WHAM; http://www.wisc.edu.

17 Rayleigh scattering, Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering.

18 Anita L. Cochran, University of Texas: ‘Atomic Oxygen in the Comae of Comets‘; http://barolo.as.utexas.edu/anita/oxygen2.pdf.

19 ‘Large Aperture 6300A Photometry of Comet Hale-Bopp‘; http://wisp.physics.wisc.edu/~jpmorgen/hale-bopp/index_old.html or http://www.psi.edu/~jpmorgen/pdf/jpmorgen02_hale-boppOI_poster.pdf.

20 Delone, Makarova, Yakunina: ‘Evidence for Moving Features in the Corona from Emission Line Profiles Observed During Eclipses‘, Moscow, 1987. - Raju, Singh, Muralishanker: ‘Fabry-Parot Interfereometric Observation of the Solar Corona in the Green line‘, Indian Institute of Astrophysics, India, 1997. - Delone, Divlekeev, Smirova, Yakunina: ‘Interferometric Investigations of the Solar Corona During Solar Eclipses and Problems for Future‘, Institute of Astronomy Sternberg, Moscow, 1998.